See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

ABBOT (from the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew ab, a See also:

• FATHER

father, through the See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac abba, See also:

• LAT

Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. See also:

• LATE

late Lat. See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form abbad-em changed in 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century under See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab  t; Fr. See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

abbe), the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of a community of monks, called also in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East hegumenos or See also:

• ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. apxcov, a ruler, and µav3pa, a fold or monastery)

archimandrite . The See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title had its origin in the monasteries of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became accepted generally in all See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages as the designation of the head of a monastery . At first it was employed as a respectful title for any See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk, as we learn from St See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome, who denounced the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom on the ground that See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ had said, " See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

Call no See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man See also:

• FATHER

father on See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth " (in Epist. ad Gal. iv . 6, in Matt. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 9), but it was soon restricted to the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior . The name "See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot," though See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, was never universal . Among the See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans, See also:

• CARMELITES

Carmelites, See also:

• AUGUSTINIANS

Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus, "See also:

• PROVOST (through O. Fr. prevost, mod. prevot, Lat. praepositus, set over, from praeponere, to place in front)

provost," and See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

Prior; among the See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis-cans, Custos, " See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian "; and ' by the monks of Camaldoli, See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major . In See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, the first See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of See also:

• MONASTICISM (Gr. p.ovacrnabs, living alone, µ6vos)

monasticism, the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined . Some-times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well . Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number exceeded in other cases . By the See also:

• RULE

rule of St See also:

• BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS)
• BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885)

Benedict, which, until the reform of See also:

• CLUNY, or CLUGNY

Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community . The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Cluniac See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Order that the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized .

New styles were devised to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express this new relation; thus the abbot of See also:

• MONTE

Monte Cassino was called abbas abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles abbas generalis, or magister or See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister generalis . Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor i at the outset was the abbot any exception . All orders of See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, therefore, even the "doorkeeper," took See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence of him . For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church (Novellae, 133, c. ii.) . This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a See also:

• DESERT

desert or at a distance from a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, and See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity compelled the ordination of abbots . This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual See also:

• LIFE

life, but, before the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters . The See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change spread more slowly in the West, *here the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century, and partially so up to the 11th . Ecclesiastical See also:

• COUNCILS

councils were, however, attended by abbots . Thus at that held at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, A.D . 448, for the condemnation of See also:

• EUTYCHES (c. 380-c. 456)

Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, c . A.D . 69o, See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore promulgated a See also:

• CANON

canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils .

Examples are not uncommon in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in Saxon times . Abbots were permitted by the second See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of See also:

• NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
• NICAEA, or NICE

Nicaea, A.D . 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior orders . This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks, almost without exception, took See also:

• HOLY

holy orders . Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the lrth century: The See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Code of Justinian (See also:

• LIB

lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight . The first See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

Arles, A.D . 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope alone, received an impulse from See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory the See also:

• GREAT

Great . These exceptions, introduced with a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• OBJECT

object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually' creating an imfierium in imperio, and depriving the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of all authority over the chief centres of See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence in his See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese . In the 12th century the abbots of See also:

• FULDA

Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne . Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and in' See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of the See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early councils and the protests of St See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of See also:

• MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. j4rpa, a band, head-band, head-dress)

mitre, See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, gloves and sandals . It has been maintained that the right to See also:

• WEAR

wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11 th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J . Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p .

453) . The first undoubted instance is the See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull by which See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander II. in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine at See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury (see MITRE) . The mitred abbots in England were those of See also:

• ABINGDON

Abingdon, St See also:

• ALBAN, SAINT

Alban's, Bardney, See also:

• BATTLE

Battle, See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

Bury St See also:

• EDMUND
• EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016)
• EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICE] (d. 1240)

Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, See also:

• COLCHESTER
• COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1ST BARON (1757-1829)

Colchester, Croyland, See also:

• EVESHAM

Evesham, See also:

• GLASTONBURY

Glastonbury, See also:

• GLOUCESTER
• GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster)
• GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295)
• GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262)
• GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147)
• GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE

Gloucester, St Benet's See also:

• HULME, WILLIAM (1631-1691)

Hulme, See also:

• HYDE
• HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703)

Hyde, See also:

• MALMESBURY
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, IST EARL OF (1746-1820)
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889)

Malmesbury, See also:

• PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough, See also:

• RAMSEY
• RAMSEY, SIR ANDREW CROMBIE (1814—1891)

Ramsey, See also:

• READING

Reading, See also:

• SELBY
• SELBY, WILLIAM COURT GULLY

Selby, See also:

• SHREWSBURY
• SHREWSBURY, CHARLES TALBOT, DUKE OF (166o-1718)
• SHREWSBURY, DUKE
• SHREWSBURY, EARLS OF
• SHREWSBURY, ELIZABETH TALBOT, COUNTESS OF (1518–16o8)
• SHREWSBURY, JOHN TALBOT, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1453)

Shrewsbury, See also:

• TAVISTOCK

Tavistock, Thorney, See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster, Winchcombe, St See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary's See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York . Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D . 1 154 See also:

• ADRIAN
• ADRIAN, SAINT

Adrian IV . (See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up . Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster . To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . The See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffeEtually guarded against by the Lateran council, A.D . 1123 . In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D . 787, to confer the See also:

• TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave)

tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in A.D .

1489 permitted by See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Innocent IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate . Of course, they always and everywhere had the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit . When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose the abbot out of the monks of the See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent, but the right of See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of the election and the See also:

• BENEDICTION (Lat. benedictio, from benedicere, to bless)

benediction of the new abbot . In abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required;but this seems never to have been practically enforced . It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, of legitimate See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate, when a See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience . In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor . Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St See also:

• BRUNO (BRUN, BRUNS) OF QUERFURT, SAINT (c. 975-1009)
• BRUNO, GIORDANO (c. 1548-1600)
• BRUNO, or BRUN (925–965)
• BRUNO, SAINT

Bruno . Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order . The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop . The ceremony of the formal See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of a See also:

• BENEDICTINE

Benedictine abbot in See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval times is thus prescribed by the See also:

• CONSUETUDINARY (Med. Lat. consuetudinarius, from consuetudo, custom)

consuetudinary of Abingdon . The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession .

After proceeding up the See also:

• NAVE

nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his See also:

• COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. commissaries, one to whom a charge or trust is committed)

commissary, and placed in his See also:

• STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

stall . The monks; then kneeling, gave him the See also:

• KISS

kiss of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace on the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office . He then put on his shoes in the See also:

• VESTRY (O.- Fr. vestiaire, Lat. vestiarium, a wardrobe)

vestry, and a See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter was held, and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable See also:

• SERMON (Lat. sermo, a discourse)

sermon . The power of the abbot was paternal but See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute, limited, however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control . As a rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn . Examples among the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian monks of this See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others,—e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock immensely exceeding his See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers . St Jerome, indeed, See also:

• LAYS

lays down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they commanded (Ep . 2, ad Eustoch. de custrd. virgin.) . So despotic did the tyranny become in the West; that in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St See also:

• COLUMBAN (543-615)

Columban ordained Too lashes as the See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment for very slight offences . An abbot also had the power of ex-communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their See also:

• ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot)

abbess . The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence by the brethren of his house . When he appeared either in church or chapter all See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose and bowed .

His letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the king . If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to kneel . No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission . The highest See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place was naturally assigned to him, both in church and at table . In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks . In the West the rule of St Benedict appointed him a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers . This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of See also:

• AIX

Aix, A.D . 817, decreed that the abbot should dine in the See also:

• REFECTORY (med. Lat. refectorium, from reficere, to refresh)

refectory, and be content with the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

guest . These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of See also:

• DIET

diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots . When the abbot See also:

• CON

con-descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them . At St Alban's the abbot took the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord's seat, in the centre of the high table, and was served on See also:

• SILVER

silver See also:

• PLATE

plate, and sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality . When abbots dined in their own private See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, the rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was See also:

• ROOM

room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping .

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks . But by the loth century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in See also:

• SILK

silk, and adopting sumptuous attire . They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress.' This was a necessary consequence of their following the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at that time only natural . With the increase of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their See also:

• SPECIAL

special religious See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from See also:

• LAY

lay lords by See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy . Thus we hear of abbots going out to See also:

• SPORT (a contracted or shortened form of "disport," to amuse, divert oneself, O. Fr. se dis porter or deporter, to leave off work, hence to play, Lat. dis-, away, and portare, to carry; the origin of the meaning lies in the notion of turning away from ser

sport, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of See also:

• LEICESTER
• LEICESTER, EARLS OF
• LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL
• LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626)
• LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842)

Leicester, c . 1360, who was the most skilled of all the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility in See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare-See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting . In magnificence of equipage and See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the See also:

• REALM

realm . They rode on mules with gilded bridles, See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich saddles and housings, carrying See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks on their See also:

• WRIST

wrist, followed by an immense See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train of attendants . The bells of the churches w,ere See also:

• RUNG

rung as they passed . They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits . This See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially . For instance, we read of See also:

• WHITING
• WHITING (Gadus merlangus)

Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VIII., that his house was a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of well-ordered See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, where as many as 30o sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous See also:

• EDUCATION

education, had been brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities .

His table, attendance and See also:

• OFFICERS

officers were an See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour to the nation . He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week . He had his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country houses and See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries, and when he travelled to attend See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of too persons . The abbots of Cluny and See also:

• VENDOME
• VENDOME, LOUIS JOSEPH

Vendome were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman church . In See also:

• PROCESS

process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic See also:

• SYSTEM

system, as to the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal of a See also:

• BODY

body of parochial, clergy; and under the See also:

• CAROLINGIANS

Carolingians to the chief See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, Abbas See also:

• CASTRENSIS, PAULUS

Castrensis . , It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials . Thus the chief See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic at See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa was called Abbas Populi . Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c . Lay abbots (M . See also:

• LAT

Lat. defensores, abbacomites, abbates laici, abbates milites, abbales saeculares or irreligiosi, abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards . The practice of See also:

• COMMENDATION (from the Lat. commendare, to entrust to the charge of, or to procure a favour for)

commendation, by which—to meet a contemporary emergency —the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, early suggested to the emperors and See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam . During the Carolingian See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch the custom See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up of granting these as See also:

• REGULAR

regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the loth century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established .

Even the See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

abbey of St See also:

• DENIS (DIoNysms), SAINT
• DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800)

Denis was held in commendam by See also:

• HUGH
• HUGH, ST

Hugh See also:

• CAPET

Capet . The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles; sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of commendation whatever . In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe . These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations, i.e. the more or less See also:

• COMPLETE

complete secularization of 1 See also:

• WALWORTH, SIR WILLIAM (d. 1385)

Walworth, the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth abbot of St Alban's, c . 930, is charged by See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman.spiritual institutions . The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy, and was See also:

• FREE

free to dispose of his See also:

• FIEF

fief as in the case of any other . The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree . Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as See also:

• DEAN (Lat. decanus, derived from the Gr. 8eaa, ten)
• DEAN, FOREST OF

dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis) . When the great reform of the Ttth century had put an end to the See also:

• DIRECT

direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as See also:

• LATE

late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean . The connexion of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues . The abuse was not confined to the West . See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John, See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch, at the beginning of the T2th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, beneficiarii, for life, or for See also:

• PART

part of their lives, by the emperors .

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior . The title abbe (Ital. abbate) , as commonly used in the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic church on the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, is the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English " Father," being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure . This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the See also:

• CONCORDAT (Lat. concordatum, agreed upon, from con-, together, and cor, heart)

concordat between Pope See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo X. and Francis I . (1516), to appoint abbes commendataires to most of the abbeys in France . The expectation of obtaining these sinecures See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men towards the church in considerable See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, and the class of abbes so formed —abbes de tour they were sometimes called; and sometimes (ironically) abbes de Sainte See also:

• ESPERANCE

esperance, abbes of St See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Hope—came to hold a recognized position . The connexion many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress—a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short dark-See also:

• VIOLET

violet coat with narrow See also:

• COLLAR

collar . Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French nobility as tutors or advisers . Nearly every great See also:

• FAMILY

family had its abbe . The class did not survive the Revolution; but the See also:

• COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy title of abbe, having See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long lost all connexion in See also:

• PEOPLE

people's minds with any special ecclesiastical See also:

• FUNCTION

function, remained as a convenient general See also:

• TERM

term applicable to any clergyman . In the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abi) is sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction, and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries converted at the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation into collegiate foundations . Of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593 . The abbot of Lokkum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the See also:

• CONSISTORY (Lat. consistorium, literally, a standing place, hence meeting place, waiting or audience chamber)

consistory of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom .

The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot, prior and the " convent " of canons (Stifisherren) . See See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• BINGHAM, JOSEPH (1668-1723)

Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (184o); Du Cange, Glossarium med. et -inf . Lat . (ed . 1883) ; J . See also:

• CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867–1906)

Craigie See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson, Hist. of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Church (1858–1873); Edmond See also:

• MARTEN
• MARTEN, AMERICAN
• MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680)
• MARTEN, JAPANESE
• MARTEN, STONE

Marten, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, 1783) ; C . F . R. de See also:

• MONTALEMBERT, CHARLES FORBES RENE DE (1810-1870)
• MONTALEMBERT, MARC

Montalembert, See also:

• LES

Les moines d'occident depuis S . See also:

• BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD (1834—1901)

Benoit jusqu'd S . Bernard (1860-1877) Achille See also:

• LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908)

Luchaire, See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel See also:

• DES

des institutions frangaises (See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

Par. t8§2): (E . V.; W . A .