ACADEMIES  . The word " See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy" is derived from " the See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

grove of Academe, See also:

• PLATO

Plato's retirement, " the birthplace of the See also:

• ACADEMIC

Academic school of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy (see under ACADEMY, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

GREEK) . The See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens after the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of the Academy continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries till they were abolished by a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of Justinian . It was not without significance in tracing the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the word that See also:

• CICERO

Cicero gave the name to his See also:

• VILLA

villa near See also:

• PUTEOLI (mod. Pozzuoli, q.v.)

Puteoli . It was there that he entertained his cultured See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends and held the symposia which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other philosophic and moral dialogues . "Academy," in its See also:

• MODERN

modern acceptation, may be defined as a society or corporate See also:

• BODY

body having for its See also:

• OBJECT

object the cultivation and promotion of literature, of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and of See also:

• ART

art, either sever-ally or in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination, undertaken for the pure love of these pursuits, with no interested See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive . Modern academies, more-over, have, almost without exception, some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of public recognition; they are either founded or endowed, or subsidized, or at least patronized, by the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . The See also:

• TERM

term " academy " is very loosely used in modern times; and, in essentials, other bodies with the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " society " or " See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college," or even " school; " often embody the same See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea; we are only concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of academy, are of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical importance in their various See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early History.—The first academy, as thus defined, though it might with equal See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice claim to- be the first of See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities, was the museum of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria founded at the beginning of the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.c. by the first of the See also:

• PTOLEMIES

Ptolemies . There all the sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East gathered beneath its spacious porticos . Here, too, was the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the famous library of Alexandria . Passing over the state See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute for the promotion of science founded at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople by See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar Bardas in the 9th century, and the various academies established by the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors at See also:

• GRANADA
• GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588)

Granada, at Corduba and as far east as See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand, we come to the academy over which See also:

• ALCUIN (Marmara)

Alcuin presided, a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the School of the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace established by See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne in 782 .

This academy was the prototype of the learned coteries of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris which See also:

• MOLIERE (1622-1673)

Moliere afterwards satirized . It took all knowledge for its See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province; it included the learned See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest and the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince who could not write his own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions . The See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the tradition of an See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford academy of See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred the See also:

• GREAT

Great has been proved to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on a See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

forgery . The academy of arts founded at See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence in 1270 by Brunetto See also:

• LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. 1210-C. 1294)

Latini was See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived and has See also:

• LEFT

left no memories, and modern See also:

• LITERARY

literary academies may be said to trace their lineage in See also:

• DIRECT

direct descent from the troubadours of the early 14th century . The first Floral See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

Games were held at See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Toulouse in May 1324, at the See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons of a gild of troubadours, who invited " See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable lords, friends and companions who possess the science whence See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring joy, See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good sense, merit and politeness " to assemble in their See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden of the " See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

gay science " and recite their See also:

• WORKS

works . The See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize, a See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• VIOLET

violet, was awarded to Vidal de See also:

• CASTELNAUDARY

Castelnaudary for a poem to the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the Virgin . In spite of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English invasion and other adversities the Floral Games survived till, about the See also:

• YEAR

year 1500, their permanence was secured by the munificent See also:

• BEQUEST (from 0. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in words; cf. " quoth ")

bequest of Clemente Isaure, a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of Toulouse . In 1694 the Academie See also:

• ALES (ALEsIus), ALEXANDER (1500-1565)

ales Jeux Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV.; its statutes were reformed and the number of members raised to 36 . Suppressed during the Revolution it was revived in 1806, and still continues to See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award amaranths of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• SILVER

silver lilies, for which there is keen competition . See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

Provence led the way, but See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy of the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance is the See also:

• SOIL

soil in which academies most See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew and flourished . The Accademia 1.497 Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Florence in 1433 by See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio'Beccadelli of See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo and fostered by See also:

• LAURENTIUS, PAUL (1554-1624)

Laurentius See also:

• VALLA, LORENZO, or LAURENTIUS (c. 1406-1457)

Valla . Far more famous was the Accademia Platonica, founded c .

1442 by Cosimo de' See also:

• MEDICI
• MEDICI, GIACOMO (1817-1882)

Medici, which numbered among its members Marsilio See also:

• FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499)

Ficino, See also:

• PICO

Pico della See also:

• MIRANDOLA

Mirandola, See also:

• MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527)

Machiavelli and Angelo Poliziano . It was, as the name implies, chiefly occupied with Plato, but it added to its See also:

• OBJECTS

objects the study of See also:

• DANTE

Dante and the See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, and though it lived for barely See also:

• HALF

half a century, yet its See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence as a model for similar learned See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies was great and lasting . Modern Academies.—Academies have played an important See also:

• PART

part in the revival of learning and in the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of scientific inquiry . They See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of aristocracies when letters were the distinction of the few and when science had not been differentiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists . Their See also:

• INTEREST

interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained that at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day they have much direct influence on the See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement of learning either by way of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research or of publication . For example, the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard dictionaries of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England are the See also:

• WORK

work, not of academies, but of individual scholars, of See also:

• LITTRE, MAXIMILIEN PAUL SMILE (1801-1881)

Littre, See also:

• GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, I
• GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863)
• GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859)

Grimm and See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray . See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save his countrymen from the See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of vulgarity and provinciality has met with no response . Academies have been supplanted, socially by the modern See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club, and intellectually by societies devoted to See also:

• SPECIAL

special branches of science . Those that survive from the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp on literary and scientific merit . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal academies of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes, according to the subjects to which they are devoted . I . SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria.—The Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften at See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, originally projected by See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz, was founded by the emperor See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes—See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and natural science, and history and See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology .

See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium and the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands.—A literary society was founded at See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels in 1769 by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count Cobenzl, the See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of Maria See also:

• THERESA, ST (1515-1582)

Theresa, which after various changes of name and constitution became in 1816 the Academie imperiale et royale See also:

• DES

des sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William I. of the Netherlands . It has devoted itself principally to natural history and antiquities . The Royal Institute of the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Countries was founded in 1808 by See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King Louis See also:

• BONAPARTE

Bonaparte . It was replaced in 1851 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam, to which in 1856 a literary See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section was added . See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark.—The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab (Royal Academy of Sciences) at See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen owes its origin to See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to arrange his See also:

• CABINET

cabinet of medals . Historians and antiquaries were called in to assist at the sittings, and the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into a sort of learned club . The king took it under his See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, enlarged its See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope by the addition of natural history, physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal academy with an endowment fund . France.—The old Academie des sciences had the same origin as the more celebrated Academie francaise . A number of men of science had for some See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years met together, first at the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of P . Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of State, afterwards at that of Melchisedec Thevenot, the learned traveller . It included See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise and See also:

• ETIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845)

Etienne See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal . See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes, the author of See also:

• LEVIATHAN

Leviathan, was presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640 .

See also:

• COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1619-1683)

Colbert conceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club . A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent mathematicians, among whom were Christian Huyghens and See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of the new society . See also:

• PENSIONS

Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each of the members, and a fund for See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments and experiment was placed at their disposal . They began their session on the 22nd of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1666 in the Royal Library, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting twice a II See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week—the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on Saturdays . See also:

• DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706)

Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a See also:

• POST

post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded in Latin, and C . A . See also:

• COUPLET

Couplet was made treasurer . At first the academy was rather a laboratory and See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory than an academy proper . Experiments were undertaken in See also:

• COMMON

common and results discussed . Several See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign savants, in particular the Danish astronomer See also:

• ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1809-1869)
• ROEMER, OLE (Latinized OLAUS) (1644—1710)

Roemer, joined the society, attracted by the liberality of the See also:

• GRAND

Grand MVIonarque; and the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German physician and geometer Tschirnhausen and See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton were made foreign associates . The See also:

• DEATH

death of Colbert, who was succeeded by See also:

• LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE (1641–1691)

Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes of the academy . The labours of the academicians were diverted from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the construction of fountains and cascades at See also:

• VERSAILLES

Versailles, and the mathematicians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of See also:

• LANSQUENET

lansquenet and See also:

• BASSET, or BASSETTE

basset .

In 1699 the academy was reconstituted by Louis See also:

• PHELYPEAUX

Phelypeaux, See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

comte de Pontchartrain, under whose See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department as secretary of state the academies came . By its new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten honorary, men of high See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank interested in science, and fifteen pensionaries, who were the working members . Of these three were geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanicians, three anatomists, and three chemists . Each of these three had two associates, and, besides, each See also:

• PENSIONARY

pensionary had the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of naming a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil . There were eight foreign and four See also:

• FREE

free associates . The See also:

• OFFICERS

officers were, a See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president and a See also:

• VICE

vice-president, named by the king from among the honorary members, and a secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office for See also:

• LIFE

life . See also:

• FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757)

Fontenelle, a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of wit, and rather a popularizer of science than an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as secretary . The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing in that respect from that of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Academy, in which the principle of equality among the members was never violated . Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage of the great . The two leading See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the academy at this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period were See also:

• CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765)

Clairault and See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur . To trace the subsequent fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the rise and progress of science in France . It has reckoned among its members See also:

• LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749—1827)

Laplace, See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon, See also:

• LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813)

Lagrange, D'See also:

• ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND

Alembert, See also:

• LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794)

Lavoisier, and See also:

• JUSSIEU, DE

Jussieu, the See also:

• FATHER

father of modern See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany .

On the 21st of December 1792 it met for the last See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and it was suppressed with its See also:

• SISTER

sister academies by the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention on the 8th of See also:

• APRIL

April 1793 . Some of its members were guillotined, some were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty . The See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy of See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank . In 1795 the Convention decided on See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding an Institut See also:

• NATIONAL

National which was to replace all the academies, and its first class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences . In 1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch of the Institute . The new academy has reckoned among its members, besides many other brilliant men, See also:

• CARNOT, LAZARE EIPPOLYTE (18ot-1888)
• CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894)
• CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD (1796-1832)

Carnot the engineer, the physicists See also:

• FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827)

Fresnel, See also:

• AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775–1836)
• AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864)

Ampere, See also:

• ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN (1786-1853)

Arago, See also:

• BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1774-1862)

Biot, the chemists Gay-Lussac and See also:

• THENARD, LOUIS JACQUES (1777-1857)

Thenard, the zoologists G . See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier and the two See also:

• GEOFFROY
• GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731)
• GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814)

Geoffroy See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint-Hilaires . In France there were also considerable academies in most of the large towns . See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier, for example, had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the counterpart . It was reconstituted in 1847, and organized under three sections—See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, science and letters . Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640, under the name of Societe de lanternistes; and there were analogous institutions at See also:

• NIMES
• NIMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia)

Nimes, See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

Arles, See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, See also:

• DIJON

Dijon, See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux and elsewhere . Germany.—The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, founded by J .

C . See also:

• STURM
• STURM, JULIUS (1816-1896)

Sturm, See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the university of Altorf, in See also:

• FRANCONIA (Ger. Franken)

Franconia, in 1672, on the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of the Accademia del Cimento . It originally consisted of twenty members, and continued to flourish See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the death of its founder . The early labours of the society weredevoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the moei notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the results . Two volumes (1676–1685) of proceedings were published by Sturm . The former, Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, begins with an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the diving-See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell, "a new invention"; next follow chapters on the See also:

• CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. Kagapa, an arched chamber)

camera obscura, the Torricellian experiment, the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air-See also:

• PUMP

pump, See also:

• MICROSCOPE (Gr. µucp6s, small, asenreiv, to %view)

microscope, See also:

• TELESCOPE

telescope, &c . The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, if judged by the work it has produced, holds the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in Germany . Its origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1700 by See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was its first president . Hampered and restricted under Frederick William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French model furnished by See also:

• MAUPERTUIS, PIERRE LOUIS MOREAU DE (1698–1759)

Maupertuis, and received its present cons stitution in 1812 . It is divided into two classes and four sections —See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical . Each section has a permanent secretary with a See also:

• SALARY

salary of 1200 marks, and each of the 50 See also:

• REGULAR

regular members is paid boo marks a year . Among the contributors to its transactions (first See also:

• VOLUME

volume published in 1710), to name only the dead, we find Immanuel See also:

• BEKKER (or WOLFF), ELIZABETH (1738–1804)
• BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL (1785–1871)
• BEKKER, BALTHASAR (1634–1698)

Bekker, Bockling, See also:

• BERNOULLI

Bernoulli, F .

See also:

• BOPP, FRANZ (1791-1867)

Bopp, P . See also:

• BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764—1829)

Buttmann, See also:

• ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ (1791–1865)

Encke (of See also:

• COMET (Gr. Koµieiis, long-haired)

comet fame), L . See also:

• EULER, LEONHARD (1707-1783)

Euler, the See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers Grimm, the two Humboldts, See also:

• LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851)

Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T . See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, J . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, G . See also:

• NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG (1776–1831)
• NIEBUHR, KARSTEN (1733-1815)

Niebuhr, C . - See also:

• RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869)
• RITTER, KARL (1779–1859)

Ritter (the geographer), See also:

• SAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH KARL VON (1779–1861)

Savigny and See also:

• ZUMPT

Zumpt . Frederick II. presented in 1768 A Dissertation on Ennui . To the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, and the Monumenta Germaniae Historica . ' The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu See also:

• MANNHEIM

Mannheim was founded by the elector See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine in 1755 . Since 1780 it has devoted itself specially to See also:

• METEOROLOGY (Gr. JerEwpa, and hb'yos, i.e. the science of things in the air)

meteorology, and has published valuable observations under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologicae Theodoro-Palatine . The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mitnchen was founded in 1759 .

It is .distinguished from other academies by the part it has played in national See also:

• EDUCATION

education . See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph, the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, induced the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand over to it the organization and superintendence of public instruction, and this work was carried out by Privy-councillor See also:

• JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819)
• JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814)
• JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851)

Jacobi, the president of the academy . In See also:

• RECENT

recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with natural history . The Konigliche A kademie der Wissenschaften, at See also:

• ERFURT

Erfurt, which See also:

• DATES

dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the See also:

• HESSIAN

Hessian academy of sciences at See also:

• GIESSEN

Giessen, which publishes medical transactions, also deserve mention . Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland.— In 1616 a See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme for founding a royal academy was started by See also:

• EDMUND
• EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016)
• EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICE] (d. 1240)

Edmund See also:

• BOLTON (BOLTON-LE-MOORS)
• BOLTON (or BOULTON), EDMUND (1S75?-1633?)
• BOLTON, DUKES OF

Bolton, an eminent See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar and See also:

• ANTIQUARY

antiquary, who in his See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition to King See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I., which was supported by See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM (1802-1898)

Villiers, See also:

• MARQUIS

marquis of See also:

• BUCKINGHAM
• BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• BUCKINGHAM, FIRST DUKE
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE 0E1
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE 0E1 (1628-1687)
• BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF3 (1454-1483)
• BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855)

Buckingham, proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James, his Academe or College of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour." A See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the proposed original members is still extant, and includes the names of George See also:

• CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. ceap, and Mid. Eng. ,heap, to barter, cf. " Cheapside " in London, and Ger. Kaufmann)
• CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559–1634)

Chapman, See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael See also:

• DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631)

Drayton, See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben See also:

• JONSON

Jonson, See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• SELDEN, JOHN (1584–1654)

Selden, Sir Kenelm See also:

• DIGBY, KENELM HENRY (1800-188o)
• DIGBY, SIR EVERARD (1578-1606)
• DIGBY, SIR KENELM (1603-1665)

Digby and Sir See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)