ALPS  , the collective name for one of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain systems of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . 1 . Position and Name.—The See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of Europe is no more than a great See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula extending westwards from the much vaster continent of See also:

• ASIA

Asia, while it is itself broken up by two inland seas into several smaller peninsulas—the Mediterranean forming the Iberian, the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian and the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek peninsulas, while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller one of See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark . See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially mountain ranges . But in height and importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a great mountain-See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, stretching from See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France to the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, as well as between the plains of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . This chain is collectively known as the Alps, and is the most important See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical feature of the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European continent . The Alps, however, do not See also:

• PRESENT

present so continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the See also:

• ANDES

Andes or even the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees . They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by comparatively deep valleys, which, with many See also:

• LOCAL

local exceptions, tend towards See also:

• PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

parallelism with the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general direction of the whole See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass . This, between the See also:

• DAUPHINE

Dauphine and the borders of Hungary, forms a broad See also:

• BAND

band See also:

• CONVEX

convex towards the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, while most of the , valleys See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie between the directions See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and south-west to north-east . But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, See also:

• PLANTS

plants and animals, as well as of currents of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between the climates of the opposite slopes . The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some writers connecting it with a See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root See also:

• ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white)

alb, said to mean height, while others suggest the Latin See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective albus (See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white), referring to the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of the snowy peaks . But in all parts of the great chain itself, the See also:

• TERM

term See also:

• ALP

Alp (or Alm in the Eastern Alps) is exclusively applied to the high mountain pastures (see ALP), and not to the peaks and ridges of the chain .

2 . Limits.—These will depend on the meaning we attach to the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central Europe . If we merely See also:

• DESIRE

desire to distinguish it from certain See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor ranges (e.g. the See also:

• CEVENNES (Lat. Cebenna or Gebenna)

Cevennes, the See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura, the hills of central Germany, the Carpathians, the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines), which are really See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent ranges rather than offshoots of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main chain, the I . 24best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft.), leading from See also:

• TURIN

Turin to See also:

• SAVONA

Savona and See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa, and on the east the See also:

• LINE

line of the railway over the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.) from See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna to See also:

• MARBURG
• MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (Marburger Religionsgesprach)

Marburg in the Mur valley, and on by See also:

• LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana)

Laibach to See also:

• TRIESTE (Ger. Triest; Slay. Trst; the Roman Tergeste, q.v.)

Trieste . But if we confine the meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that are what is commonly called " Alpine," where the height is sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow, our boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots other than those mentioned above . To the west the limit will then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from See also:

• CUNEO (Fr. Coni)

Cuneo (Coni) to See also:

• VENTIMIGLIA (Fr. Vintimille, anc. Album Intimilium or Albintimilium)

Ventimiglia, while on the east our line will be the route over the Radstadter Tauern (5702 ft.) and the Katschberg (5384 ft.) from See also:

• SALZBURG

Salzburg to See also:

• VILLACH

Villach in See also:

• CARINTHIA (Ger. Kdrnten)

Carinthia, and thence by See also:

• KLAGENFURT (Slovene, Celovec)

Klagenfurt to Marburg and so past Laibach in See also:

• CARNIOLA (Ger. Krain)

Carniola on to Trieste; from Villach the See also:

• DIRECT

direct route to Trieste would be over the Predil Pass (3813 ft.) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft.), more to the west, but in either See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of the entire South-Eastern Alps, as well as its See also:

• LOWER

lower neighbours . On the northern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side the Alps (in whichever sense we take this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine from See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel to the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake of See also:

• CONSTANCE
• CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz)
• CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
• CONSTANCE, LAKE OF (called by the Romans Lacus Brigantinus or lake of Bregenz, and now usually named in German Bodensee, as well as the " Swabian Sea ")

Constance, the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low region of See also:

• FOOT

foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of Vienna . One result of this limit, marked out by Nature herself, is that the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters which flow down the northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea through the Rhine, or into the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea by means of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, not a drop reaching the Baltic Sea . On the southern side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste subside into the great plain of See also:

• PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pedemontium)

Piedmont, See also:

• LOMBARDY

Lombardy and See also:

• VENETIA

Venetia . But what properly forms the western See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit of the Alps runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direction, then bending eastwards' to the Col d'Altare that divides it from the Apennines . It should be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that the limits adopted above refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they exist at the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . Naturalists will of course prefer other limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists .

3 . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—It is well known that as we rise from the sea.-level into the upper regions of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone, where it expands in See also:

• VOLUME

volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of snow or See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain . The position'of the Alps about the centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the surrounding regions . The See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most important See also:

• FUNCTION

function is to regulate the See also:

• WATER

water-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of that large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long preceding See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the See also:

• REGULAR

regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, from a remote period, has been used for that See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps . It is an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error to suppose that these are indicated by See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute height above the sea-level . Local conditions of exposure to the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, See also:

• PROTECTION

protection from See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold winds, or the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse, are of See also:

• PRIMARY

primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation . The great plain of Upper Italy has a See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter climate colder than that of the See also:

• BRITISH

British Islands . The See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive and the characteristic Olive shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do region. not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree ripens its See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes .

The See also:

• EVERGREEN

evergreen See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak is See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild on the rocks about the Lake of See also:

• GARDA, LAKE OF (the Lacus Benacus of the Romans)

Garda, and lemons are cultivated on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, with partial protection in winter . The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short duration, but it can-not be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where the mean winter temperature falls below 42° F.; and to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° F. during the day, continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn . The See also:

• VINE

vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine it demands, at the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season of ripening, vine a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the region. more delicate tree . These conditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed to the sun . The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations . Many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of See also:

• MIDDLE

middle Europe are seen to flourish along with the vine . A mean summer temperature of at least 68° F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps . Many writers take the growth of See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain as the characteristic of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the See also:

• COMMON

common Mountain See also:

• SPECIES

species are in cultivation, and these have such different region, or climatal requirements, that they do not afford a satisregion of factory criterion . A more natural limit is afforded by See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous the presence of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief deciduous trees—oak, See also:

• BEECH

beech, trees. ash and sycamore . These do not reach exactly to the same See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation . This limit usually lies about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft., sometimes even to 5500 ft . It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees .

The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian Alps, a considerable See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found . In many districts where such See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods once existed, their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place has been occupied by the Scottish See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine and spruce, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation . The mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different . Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring and summer considerably warmer than the See also:

• AVERAGE

average of British seasons . The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of See also:

• LIFE

life of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the Alps . On a rough estimate Subalpine we may reckon that, of the space lying between the region, or summits of the Alps and the low See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country on either region of side, one-See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter is available for cultivation, of which coniferous about one-See also:

• HALF

half may be vineyards and See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, while trees. the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder produces See also:

• FORAGE

forage and grass . About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, See also:

• BARE

bare See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock, lakes and the beds of streams . There remains about one-half, which is divided between See also:

• FOREST

forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly supports the relatively large population . For a quarter of the See also:

• YEAR

year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of a See also:

• DISTRICT

district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one See also:

• PART

part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese and See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter, the remainder is busy cutting See also:

• HAY
• HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived, meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe ")
• HAY, GEORGE (1729—1811)
• HAY, GILBERT
• HAY, JOHN (1838–1905)

hay and storing up winter See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food for the See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle . The larger villages are mostlyin the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft.,to 5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 60oo ft . The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially kept down, form vast forests that See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover a large part of the See also:

• SURFACE

surface . These See also:

• PLAY

play a most important part in the natural See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of the country .

They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial See also:

• SOIL

soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains . In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the valley, covering the soil with See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel and debris . 'In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the See also:

• SILVER

silver See also:

• FIR

fir; on siliceous soil the See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height . The Scottish pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests . The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common . The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the -level of its congeners . In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir- and mughus often extend above that elevation . Throughout the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole Alpine space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first region. See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of permanent masses of snow . It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in its full beauty and variety . Shrubs are not wanting . Three species of See also:

• RHODODENDRON

rhododendron See also:

• VIE

vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or See also:

• PINK

pink See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers; the common See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper rises higher still, along with three species of -See also:

• BILBERRY, BLAEBERRY

bilberry; and several See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation . The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow .

On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the spot . A portion of this is carried away by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind before it is consolidated; a larger Glacial portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the - region. surface, and is gradually converted into -See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier-See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice, which descends by a slow See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion into the deeper valleys; where it goes to swell perennial streams . As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds of See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise when a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance . Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is approximately See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal . But this holds See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good only so far as the conditions are similar . On the opposite sides of the same. chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate the increased See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the sun's rays . Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of perpetual snow is not fixed . The occurrence of favourable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains, Hence all attempts to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particular district . In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 ft. above the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 ft . As very little snow can See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on rocks that lie at an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle exceeding 60°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 1r,000 ft . There is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the alpine See also:

• FLORA

flora . Increased direct effect of See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure .

The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different . Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 8o° F., alternates with severe See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost by See also:

• NIGHT

night . There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point . Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation . 4 . Hain Chain.—In the case of every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard, as a general See also:

• RULE

rule, the water-See also:

• SHED

shed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed . Yet, as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, several important mountain See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected with the main chain by a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of peninsula: such are the Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire Bernese Oberland, the See also:

• TODI (anc. Tuder)

Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the See also:

• ORTLER

Ortler and Adamello ranges, and the See also:

• DOLOMITES, THE

Dolomites of south See also:

• TIROL (or TYROL 1)

Tirol, not to speak of the lower Alps of the See also:

• VORARLBERG

Vorarlberg, Bavaria and Salzburg . Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch off from the main watershed . Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that which forms the main watershed . The Alps, therefore, are not See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles 0 10 zo 30 40 30 0.0 70 Oo (too Peaks x Passes WIP Glaciers See also:

• LAND

Land above 1500 feet See also:

• LEFT

left white EmeryWelker aG composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a great " See also:

• DIVIDE

divide," flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main watershed . In the following remarks we propose to follow the main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other . Starting from the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of coniferous trees .

Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher See also:

• DES

des Trois Eveques (9390 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several peaks of about io,000 ft., rising on the watershed, though the highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft.) stands a little way to its north . From the Rocher des Trois Eveques the watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two loftiest peaks of this region one, the See also:

• AIGUILLE (Fr. for needle)

Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), is just to the west, and the other, the See also:

• MONTE

Monte Viso (12,609 ft.), is just to the east of the watershed . From the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), which forms the See also:

• APEX

apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents towards the west . Hence the main watershed extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette (11,500 ft.), but makes a great See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve to the north-west and back to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.), which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours . Thence the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of snowy peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west . Once more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard Pass . Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de la Seigne, and then north-east along the See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the Mont See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc chain, which culminates in the See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), the loftiest in the Alps . A number of high peaks See also:

• CROWN

crown our watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.) . Thence after a short See also:

• DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it maintains till it reaches Monte See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa,whence it bends northwards, making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass . It is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part . But, though it rises in a number of loftypeaks, such as the Mont Velan (r 2,353 ft.), the See also:

• MATTERHORN

Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the See also:

• NORD

Nord End of Monte Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft.), yet many of the highest points of the region, such as the See also:

• GRAND

Grand Combin (14,164 ft.), the Dent See also:

• BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE (1861– )

Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the main watershed . On the other hand the chain between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of ro,000 ft .

The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain . Thence to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the See also:

• PIZZO

Pizzo Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long stretch just described . From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and again to near the Pizzo Gallegione (ro,2o1 ft.), so that it presents a broken and irregular appearance . But all the loftiest peaks rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft.), Piz Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rheinwaldhorn (11,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun (10,502 ft.) . From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south-east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over the highest summit of the Bernina See also:

• GROUP

group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.), to the Bernina Pass . Thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass the main chain is See also:

• ILL

ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft.), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the See also:

• ADDA (anc. Addua)

Adda and the Fraele Pass, sinks to form the depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once more in the Piz Sesvenna (1o,568 ft.) . The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper See also:

• ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Athesis)

Adige (Etsch) is one of the most remarkable features in the See also:

• OROGRAPHY (Gr. opos, mountain, ypadeuv, to write)

orography of the Alps . The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by it is but 5 M. from the See also:

• INN

Inn valley . Eastward of this pass, the main chain runs north-east to the See also:

• BRENNER

Brenner Pass along the snowy crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being the Weisskugel (12,291 ft., Oetzthal), for the highest summits both of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 ft.) and the Zuckerhutl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north . The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy . For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 11,559 ft. in the Hochfeiler . But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed south-wards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the Greater Tauern Alps .

(a) The latter course is adopted by many geographers and has much in its favour . The eastward direction is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, culminating in the See also:

• GROSS

Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south . Our chain bends north-east near the Radstadter Tauern Pass, and preserves that direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass . (b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft.), the culminating point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach Pass, but at a point a little east of the great See also:

• DOLOMITE

Dolomite peak ofthe Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises in the Monte Coglians (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps) . Soon after our watershed makes a last See also:

• BEND

bend to the south-east and culminates in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julie Alps, though the Grintovc (8429 ft., the culminating point of the Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east . Finally our water= shed turns south and ends near the great See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and See also:

• GORZ (Ital. Gorizia ; Slovene, Gorica)

Gorz . As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or See also:

• EXTERNAL

external ranges . Yet it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the Great Aletsch, 162 m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each To m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland . In the main chain the two longest are both 94 m., the Mer de Glace at See also:

• CHAMONIX

Chamonix and the Gorner at See also:

• ZERMATT

Zermatt . In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier is the Pasterze (rather over 6; m.), which is not near the true main watershed, though it, clings to the slope of the Greater Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze . But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 6 m., and the Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the true main watershed . The so-called alpine lakes arc the sheets of water found at the foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers that form them issue into the plains .

There are, however, alpine lakes higher up (e.g. the lake of Thtin, and those in the Upper See also:

• ENGADINE (Ger. Engadin; Ital. Engadina; Ladin, Engiadina)

Engadine, in the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, between See also:

• AOSTA (anc. Augusta Praetoria Salassorum)

Aosta and the Val de Bagnes . The most singular, and probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen See also:

• TARN
• TARN (O. Eng. tame, Scand. tjarn, tjdrn, horn, &c.)

tarn that forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern Graians . Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers . In the former class are the See also:

• ISERE
• ISERE [anc. Isara]

Isere, the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone, the See also:

• AAR, or AARE

Aar, the See also:

• TICINO (Fr. and Ger. Tessin)
• TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus)

Ticino, the Tosa, the Hinter (or main) Rhine and the See also:

• LINTH, or LIMMAT

Linth; while in the latter class we have the See also:

• DURANCE (anc. Druentia)

Durance, the Po, the See also:

• REUSS
• REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804–18gr)

Reuss, the Vorder and middle branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Oglio and the Adige . The Piave and the See also:

• DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. Drau, Hung. Drava, Lat. Dravus)

Drave seem to be outside either class . 5 . See also:

• PRINCIPAL

Principal Passes.—Though the Alps form a barrier they have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for purposes of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war or See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists . The spots at which they were crossed are called passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead from the plains: Hence the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte See also:

• MORO, ANTONIO (c. 1512-1575)

Moro), for it was many ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans as Vesulus) were long simply disregarded . The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine passes . But to the See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• WORLD

world these passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to conquer the world beyond . In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or the principal passes of the Alps . For obvious reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious routes .

Hence the passes that can be shown tb have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de 1'Argentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, the Spliigen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstadter Tauern, the Solkscharte, the Plocken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz) . Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only two passes (the Spliigen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the Romans . In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far the least Romanised and least known till the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early middle ages . Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, the See also:

• SAN

San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been known before, but See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic See also:

• HISTORY

history is silent as regards them till the See also:

• DATES

dates specified . Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the favourite pass for travellers going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only . In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes . It should always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge to See also:

• CROSS

cross, to which See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland chain . On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge being the highest and most difficult . Thus the passes which crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long valley of approach, became the most important and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, the Great St Bernard, the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner . As See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time went on the travellers (with whatever See also:

• OBJECT

object) who used the great alpine passes could not put up any longer with the See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad old See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule paths . A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard were not completed till the early years of the loth century . Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon .

As See also:

• LATE

late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8111 ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have roads-the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.) . Still more recently the main alpine chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines carried over it or through it-the Brenner and the Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the Mont Cenis (though the See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel is really 17 M. to the west), the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter . There are also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Splugen and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the L6tschen Pass, on one of the external ranges . The numerous mountain See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, chiefly in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and See also:

• PILATUS, LEO, or LEONTIUS [LEONZIo PILATO] (d. 1366)

Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g. the Briinig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here . 6 . Divisions.-The Alps, within the limits indicated under (2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains . They thus form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at their See also:

• BASE

base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes . But for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical convenience it has long been usual to select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions into smaller groups . As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak artificiai, several systems have been proposed according to which the Alps may be divided . We give below that which seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on See also:

• PERSONAL

personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geologists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate See also:

• SPECIAL

special divisions as required by these various sciences . Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and theroute over the Radstadter Tauern, while in each of the 18 sub-divisions the less