See also:

• ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of Gold ")

ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold ")  , a See also:

• TERM

term used in See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography with various significations . The See also:

• ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of Gold ")

Altai region, in See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia and See also:

• MONGOLIA

Mongolia, is similar in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character to See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, but covers a very much greater See also:

• AREA

area . It extends from the See also:

• RIVER

river Irtysh and the Dzungarian depression (46°-47° N.) northwards to the Siberian railway and to the Sayan mountains . The backbone of the region is the Sailughem or Silyughema mountains, also known as Kolyvan Altai, which stretch See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastwards from 490 N. and 86° E. towards the western extremity of the Sayan mountains in 51° 6o' N. and 89° E . Their mean See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation is 5000—5500 ft . The See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-See also:

• LINE

line runs at 6700 ft. on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern versant and at 7800 ft. on the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern, and above it the rugged peaks See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower up some 3200 ft. more . Passes across the range are few and difficult, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief being the See also:

• ULAN (formerly spelt Uhlan)

Ulan-daban at 9275 ft . (9445 ft. according to See also:

• KOZLOV

Kozlov), and the Chapchan-daban, at 10,555 ft., in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and north respectively . On the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and south-east this range is flanked by the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Mongolia, the transition being effected gradually by means of several See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor plateaus, such as Ukok (7800 ft.), Chuya (6000 ft.), Kendykty (8200 ft.), Kak (8270 ft.), Suok (8500 ft.), and Juvlu-kul (7900 ft.) . This region, which is not accurately known, is studded with large lakes, i.e . Ubsa-nor (2370 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level), See also:

• KIRGHIZ

Kirghiz-nor, See also:

• DURGA

Durga-nor and See also:

• KOBDO

Kobdo-nor (3840 ft.), and traversed by various See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges, of which the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal are the Tannu-ola, See also:

• RUNNING

running roughly parallel with the Sayan mountains as far east as the Kosso-gol (See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo°–1o1° E. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long.), and the See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan-khu mountains, also stretching west and east . The range of the Altai proper, known also as the Ek-tagh, Mongolian Altai, Great Altai and Southern Altai, likewise extend in two twin parallel chains eastwards as far as 990, if not farther .

The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the Kobdo See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty escarpment from the Dzungarian depression (1550 to 3000 ft.), but descends on the north by a relatively See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short slope to the plateau (4000-5500 ft.) of north-western Mongolia . East of 940 the range is continued by a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less sharply marked orographical features and are at considerably See also:

• LOWER

lower elevations . The southern See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain bears the names of Karaadzirga and Burkhan-ola, and terminates in about 990; but the northern range, the principal names of which are Artsi-bogdo and Saikhat, extends probably most of the way to the great north-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward See also:

• BEND

bend of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the See also:

• DESERT

desert of Ordos . Whereas the western Ek-tagh Altai rises above the snow-line and is destitute of See also:

• TIMBER

timber, the eastern double ranges barely See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch the snow-line and are clothed with thick forests up to an See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of 6250 ft . The slopes of the constituent chains of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system are inhabited principally by See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad Kirghiz . The north-western and northern slopes of the Sailughem mountains are extremely steep and very difficult of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access . On this See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side lies the culminating See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of the range, the double headed Byelukha (the Mont See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc of the Altai), whose summitsreach 14,890 and 14,560 ft. respectively,' and give - origin to several glaciers (30 sq. m. in aggregate area) . Here also are the Kuitun (12,000 ft.) and several other lofty peaks . Numerous spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of See also:

• TOMSK

Tomsk, but their mutual relations are far from being well known . Such are the Chuya See also:

• ALPS

Alps, having an See also:

• AVERAGE

average altitude of 9000 ft., with summits from 11,500 to 12,000 ft., and at least ten glaciers on their northern slope; the Katun Alps, which have a mean elevation of about 10,000 ft. and are mostly snow-clad; the Kholzun range; the Korgon (6300 to 7600 ft.), Talitsk and Selitsk ranges; the Tigeretsk Alps, and so on . Several secondary plateaus of lower altitude are also distinguished by geographers, The Katun valley begins as a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• GORGE

gorge on the south-west slope of Byelukha; then, after a big bend, the river (400 M. long) pierces the Katun Alps, and enters a wider valley, lying at an altitude of from 2000 to 3500 ft., which it follows until it emerges from the Altai See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands to join the Biya in a most picturesque region . The Katun and the Biya together See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the Ob .

The next valley is that of the Charysh, which has the Korgon and Tigeretsk Alps on one side and the Talitsk and Bashalatsk Alps on the other . This, too, is very fertile . The Altai, seen from this valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small but deep Kolyvan See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake (altitude, 118o ft.), which is surrounded by fantastic See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite domes and towers . Farther west the valleys of the Uba, the Ulba and the Bukhtarma open south-westwards towards the Irtysh . The lower See also:

• PART

part of the first, like the lower valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the Ulba is the Riddersk mine, at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Ivanovsk See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak (6770 ft.), clothed with beautiful alpine meadows . The valley of the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 200 m., also has its origin at the foot of the Byelukha and the Kuitun peaks, and as it falls some 5000 ft. in less than 200 m., from an alpine plateau at an elevation of 6200 ft. to the Bukhtarma fortress (1130 ft.), it offers the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation . Its upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is the Berel, which comes down from the Byelukha . On the northern side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the upper Katun is the Katun See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier, which after two See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-falls widens out to 700-900 yards . From a grotto in this glacier bursts tumultuously the Katun river . The See also:

• MIDDLE

middle and lower parts of the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century by runaway See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian peasants—See also:

• SERFS, SERROS

serfs and nonconformists (Raskolniks)—who created there a See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic on See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed to See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized . The high valleys farther north, on the same western See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the Sailughem range, are but little known, their only visitors being Kirghiz shepherds . Those of Bashkaus, Chulyshman, and Chulcha, all three leading to the beautiful alpine lake of Teletskoye (length, 48 m.; maximum width, 3 m.; altitude, 1700 ft.; area, 87 sq. m.; maximum See also:

• DEPTH

depth, 1020 ft.; mean depth, 66o ft.), are only inhabited by nomad Telenghites or Teleuts .

The shores of the lake—reminding a visitor somewhat of the Swiss lake of See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

Lucerne—rise almost sheer to over 6000 ft. and are too wild to accommodate a numerous See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . From this lake issues the Biya, which joins the Katun at Biysk, and then meanders through the beautiful prairies of the north-west of the Altai . Farther north the Altai highlands are continued in the See also:

• KUZNETSK

Kuznetsk See also:

• DISTRICT

district, which has a slightly different See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological aspect, but still belongs to the Altai system . But the Abakan river, which rises on the western See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the See also:

• YENISEI

Yenisei . The Kuznetsk See also:

• ALA

Ala-tau range, on the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• BANK

bank of the Abakan, runs north-east into the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of See also:

• YENISEISK

Yeniseisk, while a complexus of imperfectly mapped mountains (Chukchut, Salair, Abakan) fills up the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country northwards towards the Siberian railway and westwards towards the Ob . The Tom and its numerous tributaries rise on the northern slopes of the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, and their fertile valleys are occupied by. a ' Mr S . See also:

• TURNER, CHARLES (1773–1857)
• TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775–1851)
• TURNER, NAT (1800-1831)
• TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847)
• TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615–1686)
• TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568)

Turner estimates the culminating peak of Mt . Byelukha at 14,800 ft., but to Willer's Peak, a little to the N . W. of Byelukha, he assigns an altitude of 17,800 ft . (p . 205 of Siberia) . dense Russian population, the centre of which is Kuznetsk, on the Tom .

See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—Geologically the Altai mountains consist of two distinct elements which differ considerably from each other in See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and structure . The Russian Altai is composed mainly of See also:

• MICA

mica and See also:

• CHLORITE

chlorite See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and slates, together with beds of See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, and in the higher horizons Devonian and Carboniferous fossils occur in many places . There is no axial See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss, but intrusions of granite and other plutonic rocks occur, and the famous ore deposits are found chiefly near the contact of these intrusions with the schists . The strata are thrown into folds which run in the direction of the mountain ridges, forming a See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve with the convexity facing the south-east . The Mongolian or Great Altai, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, consists mainly of gneiss and Archaean rocks . The strike of the rocks is See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the direction of the chain, and the chain is bounded by faults . It is, in fact, a See also:

• HORST

horst and not a zone of folding . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The flora of the Altai, explored chiefly by Karl F. von Ledebour (1785-1851), is See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and very beautiful . Up to a level of moo ft. on the northern and z000 ft. on the southern slopes, plant See also:

• LIFE

life belongs to the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European flora, which extends into Siberia as far as the Yenisei . The See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe flora penetrates into the mountains, ascending some 1100-1200 ft., and in sheltered valleys even up to 55oo ft., when it of course comes into contact with the purely alpine flora . See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

Tree vegetation, which reaches up as high as 65oo and 815o ft., the latter limit on the north and west, consists of magnificent forests of See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, See also:

• ASPEN

aspen, and Coniferae, such as Pinus cembra, Abies sibirica, Larix sibirica, Picea obovata, and so on, though the See also:

• FIR

fir is not found above 2500 ft., while the meadows are abundantly clothed with brightly-coloured, typical assortments of herbaceous See also:

• PLANTS

plants . The alpine meadows, which have many See also:

• SPECIES

species in See also:

• COMMON

common with the' European Alps, have also a number of their own See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar Altaian species .

See also:

• MINERAL

Mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth.—The Altai proper is rich in See also:

• SILVER

silver, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead and See also:

• ZINC

zinc ores, while in the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• COAL

coal are the chief mineral resources . The Kuznetsk Ala-tau mines are only now beginning to be explored, while the copper, and perhaps also the silver, ores of the Altai proper were worked by the mysterious prehistoric See also:

• RACE

race of the Chudes at a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when the use of iron was not yet known . Russians began to mine in 1727 at Kolyvan, and in 1739 at See also:

• BARNAUL

Barnaul . Most of the Altai region, covering an area of some 170,000 sq. m. and including the Kuznetsk district, has since 1746 formed a domain of the imperial See also:

• FAMILY

family under the name of the Altai See also:

• MINING

Mining District . The ores of the Altai proper nearly always appear in irregular See also:

• VEINS

veins, containing silver, lead, copper and gold—sometimes all together,—and they are, or were, worked chiefly by Zmeinogorsk (or Zmeiev), Zyryanovsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Riddersk (abandoned in 1861) . They offer, however, great difficulties, especially on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their continually varying productivity and temperature of See also:

• FUSION

fusion . The beautiful varieties of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry—See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green, red, striped—which are obtained, often in big monoliths, near Kolyvan, are cut at the imperial See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone-cutting factory into vases and other ornaments, See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in the See also:

• ART

art galleries and palaces of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Aquamarines of mediocre quality but enormous See also:

• SIZE

size (up to 3 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter) are found in the Korgon mine . The northern, or Salair, mining region is rich in silver ores, and the mine of this, name used formerly to yield up to 93,300 oz. of silver in the See also:

• YEAR

year . But the chief wealth of the northern Altai is in the Kuznetsk coal-basin, also containing iron-ores, which fills up a valley between the Kuznetsk Ala-tau and the Salair range for a length of about 270 m., with a width of about 65 m . The coal is considered equal to the best coal of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and south Russia . The country is also covered with thick diluvial and alluvial deposits containing gold .

However, all the mining is now on the decline . Population.—The Russian population has rapidly increased since the fertile valleys belonging to the imperial family have been thrown open to See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, and it has been estimated that in 1908 the population of the region (Biysk, Barnaul and Kuznetsk districts) reached about 800,000 . Their chief occupations are See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture (about 3,500,000 acres under culture), See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle-breeding, See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-keeping, mining, gathering of See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar-nuts and See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting . All this produce is exported partly to Tomsk and partly to Kobdo in Mongolia . The natives may represent a population of about 45,000 . They are Altaians in the west and Telenghites or Teleuts in the east, with a few Kalmucks and See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars . Although all are called Kalmucks by the Russians, they speak a See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . Both the Telenghites and the Altaians are Shamanists in See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, but many of the former are already quite Russified . The virgin forests of the Kuznetsk Ala-tau—the Chern, or See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• FOREST

Forest of the Russians—are peopled by Tatars, who live in very small settlements, sometimes of the Russian type, but` mostly in wooden yurts or huts of the Mongolian See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . They can hardly keep any cattle, and lead the See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious life of forest-dwellers, living upon various wild roots when there is no See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . Hunting and fishing are resorted to, and the skins and furs are tanned . Towns.—The See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the Altai region is Barnaul, the centre of the mining See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration and an animated commercial See also:

• TOWN

town; Biysk is the commercial centre; Kuznetsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, and the mining towns of Kolyvan, Zmeinogorsk, Riddersk and Salairsk are the next largest places .