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ANARCHISM (from the Gr. av-, and (Ipx...

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Originally appearing in Volume V01, Page 918 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ANARCHISM (from the Gr. av-, and (Ipxrt, contrary to authority)  , the name given to a principle or theory of See also:life and conduct under which society is conceived without See also:governmentSee also:harmony in such a society being obtained, not by submission to See also:law, or by obedience to any authority, but by See also:free agreements concluded between the various See also:groups, territorial and professional, freely constituted for the See also:sake of See also:production and See also:consumption, as also for the See also:satisfaction of the See also:infinite variety of needs and aspirations of a civilized being . In a society See also:developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to See also:cover all the See also:fields of human activity would take a still greater See also:extension so as to substitute themselves for the See also:state in all its functions . They would represent an interwoven network, compose 1 of an infinite variety of groups and federations of all sizes and degrees, See also:local, regional, See also:national and See also:international—temporary or more or less permanent—for all possible purposes: production, consumption and See also:exchange, communications, sanitary arrangements, See also:education, mutual See also:protection, See also:defence of the territory, and so on; and, on the other See also:side, for the satisfaction of an ever-increasing number of scientific, See also:artistic, See also:literary and sociable needs . Moreover, such a society would represent nothing immutable . On the contrary—as is seen in organic life at large—harmony would (it is contended) result from an ever-changing See also:adjustment and readjustment of See also:equilibrium between the multitudes of forces and influences, and this adjustment would be the easier to obtain as none of the forces would enjoy a See also:special protection from the state . If, it is contended, society were organized on these principles, See also:man would not be limited in the free exercise of his See also:powers in productive See also:work by a capitalist See also:monopoly, maintained by the state; nor would he be limited in the exercise of his will by a fear of See also:punishment, or by obedience towards individuals or metaphysical entities, which both See also:lead to depression of initiative and servility of mind . He would be guided in his actions by his own understanding, which necessarily would See also:bear the impression of a free See also:action and reaction between his own self and the ethical conceptions of his surroundings . Man would thus be enabled to obtain the full development of all his faculties, intellectual, artistic and moral, without being hampered by overwork for the monopolists, or by the servility and inertia of mind of the See also:great number . He would thus be able to reach full individualization, which is not possible either under the See also:present See also:system of See also:individualism, or under any system of state-See also:socialism in the so-called Volkstaat (popular state) . The Anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception is not a See also:Utopia, constructed on the a priori method, after a few desiderata have been taken as postulates . It is derived, they maintain, from an See also:analysis of tendencies that are at work already, even though state socialism may find a temporary favour with the reformers . The progress of See also:modern technics, which wonder-fully simplifies the production of all the necessaries of life; the growing spirit of See also:independence, and the rapid spread of free initiative and free understanding in all branches of activity—including those which formerly were considered as the proper attribution of See also:church and state—are steadily reinforcing the no-government tendency .

As to their economical conceptions, the Anarchists, in See also:

common with all Socialists, of whom they constitute the See also:left wing, maintain that the now prevailing system of private ownership in See also:land, and our capitalist production for the sake of profits, represent amonopoly which runs against both the principles of See also:justice and the dictates of utility . They are the See also:main obstacle which prevents the successes of modern technics from being brought into the service of all, so as to produce See also:general well-being . The Anarchists consider the wage-system and capitalist production altogether as an obstacle to progress . But they point out also that the state was, and continues to be, the See also:chief See also:instrument for permitting the few to monopolize the land, and the capitalists to appropriate for themselves a quite disproportionate See also:share of the yearly accumulated surplus of production . Consequently, while combating the present monopolization of land, and capitalism altogether, the Anarchists combat with the same See also:energy the state, as the main support of that system . Not this or that special See also:form, but the state altogether, whether it be a See also:monarchy or even a See also:republic governed by means of the See also:referendum . The state organization, having always been; both in See also:ancient and modern See also:history (Macedonian See also:empire, See also:Roman empire, modern See also:European states grown up on the ruins of the autonomous cities), the instrument for establishing monopolies in favour of the ruling minorities, cannot be made to work for the destruction of these monopolies . The Anarchists consider, therefore, that to See also:hand over to the state all the main See also:sources of economical life—the land, the mines, the See also:railways, banking, See also:insurance, and so on—as also the management of all the main branches of See also:industry, in addition to all the functions already accumulated in its hands (education, state-supported religions, defence of the territory, &c.), would mean to create a new instrument of tyranny . State capitalism would only increase the powers of bureaucracy and capitalism . True progress lies in the direction of decentralization, both territorial and functional, in the development of the spirit of local and See also:personal initiative, and of free federation from the See also:simple to the See also:compound, in lieu of the present See also:hierarchy from the centre to the periphery . In common with most Socialists, the Anarchists recognize that, like all See also:evolution in nature, the slow evolution of society is followed from See also:time to time by periods of accelerated evolution which are called revolutions; and they think that the era of revolutions is not yet closed . Periods of rapid changes will follow the periods of slow evolution, and these periods must be taken See also:advantage of—not for increasing and widening the powers of the state, but for reducing them, through the organization in every township or See also:commune of the local groups of producers and consumers, as also the regional, and eventually the international, federations of these groups .

In virtue of the above principles the Anarchists refuse to be party to the present state organization and to support it by infusing fresh See also:

blood into it . They do not seek to constitute, and invite the working men not to constitute, See also:political parties in the parliaments . Accordingly, since the See also:foundation of the International Working Men's Association in 1864-1866, they have endeavoured to promote their ideas directly amongst the labour organizations and to induce those unions to a See also:direct struggle against See also:capital, without placing their faith in See also:parliamentary legislation . The See also:Historical Development of See also:Anarchism.—The conception of society just sketched, and the tendency which is its dynamic expression, have always existed in mankind, in opposition to the governing hierarchic conception and tendency—now the one and now the other taking the upper hand at different periods of history . To the former tendency we owe the evolution, by the masses themselves, of those institutions—the See also:clan, the See also:village community, the gild, the free See also:medieval See also:city—by means of which the masses resisted the encroachments of the conquerors a pd the See also:power-seeking minorities . The same tendency asserted itself with great energy in the great religious movements of medieval times, especially in the See also:early movements of the reform and its forerunners . At the same time it evidently found its expression in the writings of some thinkers, since the times of Lao-tsze, although, owing to its non-scholastic and popular origin, it obviously found less sympathy among the scholars than the opposed tendency . As has been pointed out by Prof . See also:Adler in his Geschichte See also:des Sozialismus and Kommunismus, See also:Aristippus (b. c . 430 B.c.), one of the founders of the Cyrenaic school, already taught that the See also:wise must not give up their See also:liberty to the state, and in reply to a question by See also:Socrates he said that he did not See also:desire to belong either to the governing or the governed class . Such an attitude, however, seems to have been dictated merely by an Epicurean attitude towards the life of the masses . The best exponent of Anarchist See also:philosophy in ancient See also:Greece was See also:Zeno (342–269 or 270 B.c.), from See also:Crete, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception of a free community without government to the state-Utopia of See also:Plato .

He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the See also:

sovereignty of the moral law of the individual—remarking already that, while the necessary See also:instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct—that of sociability . When men are reasonable enough to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across the frontiers and constitute the Cosmos . They will have no need of law-courts or See also:police, will have no temples and no public See also:worship, and use no See also:money—free gifts taking the See also:place of the exchanges . Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno have not reached us and are only known through fragmentary quotations . However, the fact that his very wording is similar to the wording now in use, shows how deeply is laid the tendency of human nature of which he was the mouth-piece . In medieval times we find the same views on the state expressed by the illustrious See also:bishop of See also:Alba, Marco See also:Girolamo See also:Vida, in his first See also:dialogue De dignitate reipublicae (Ferd . See also:Cavalli, in Mem. dell' Istituto Veneto, xiii.; Dr E . Nys, Researches in the History of See also:Economics) . But it is especially in several early See also:Christian movements, beginning with the 9th See also:century in See also:Armenia, and in the preachings of the early See also:Hussites, particularly Chojecki, and the early See also:Anabaptists, especially Hans Denk (cf . See also:Keller, Ein Apostel der Wiedertdufer), that one finds the same ideas forcibly expressed—special stress being laid of course on their moral aspects . See also:Rabelais and See also:Fenelon, in their Utopias, have also expressed similar ideas, and they were also current in the 18th century amongst the See also:French Encyclopaedists, as may be concluded from See also:separate expressions occasionally met with in the writings of See also:Rousseau, from See also:Diderot's See also:Preface to the Voyage of See also:Bougainville, and so on . However, in all See also:probability such ideas could not be developed then, owing to the rigorous censorship of the Roman See also:Catholic Church .

These ideas found their expression later during the great French Revolution . While the See also:

Jacobins did all in their power to centralize everything in the hands of the government, it appears now, from recently published documents, that the masses of the See also:people, in their municipalities and " sections," accomplished a considerable constructive work . They appropriated for themselves the See also:election of the See also:judges, the organization of supplies and equipment for the See also:army, as also for the large cities, work for the unemployed, the management of charities, and so on . They even tried to establish a direct See also:correspondence between the 36,000 communes of See also:France through the intermediary of a special See also:board, outside the National See also:Assembly (cf . See also:Sigismund See also:Lacroix, Ades de la commune de See also:Paris) . It was See also:Godwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice (2 vols., 1993), who was the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of Anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his remarkable work . See also:Laws, he wrote, are not a product of the See also:wisdom of our ancestors: they are the product of their passions, their timidity, their jealousies and their ambition . The remedy they offer is worse than the evils they pretend to cure . If and only if all laws and courts were abolished, and the decisions in the arising contests were left to reasonable men chosen for that purpose, real justice would gradually be evolved . As to the state, Godwin frankly claimed its abolition . A society, he wrote, can perfectly well exist without any government: only the communities should be small and perfectly autonomous . Speaking of See also:property, hestated that the rights of every one " to every substance capable of contributing to the benefit of a human being " must be regulated by justice alone: the substance must go " to him who most wants it." His conclusion was See also:Communism .

Godwin, however, had not the courage to maintain his opinions . He entirely rewrote later on his See also:

chapter on property and mitigated his Communist views in the second edition of Political Justice (8vo, 1796) . See also:Proudhon was the first to use, in 1840 (Qu'est-ce que la propriete ? first memoir), the name of Anarchy with application to the no-government state of society: The name of " Anarchists " had been freely applied during the French Revolution by the See also:Girondists to those revolutionaries who did not consider that the task of the Revolution was accomplished with the overthrow of See also:Louis XVI., and insisted upon a See also:series of economical See also:measures being taken (the abolition of feudal rights without redemption, the return to the village communities of the communal lands enclosed since 1669, the See also:limitation of landed property to 120 acres, progressive income-tax, the national organization of exchanges on a just value basis, which already received a beginning of See also:practical realization, and so on) . Now Proudhon advocated a society without government, and used the word Anarchy to describe it . Proudhon repudiated, as is known, all schemes of Communism, according to which mankind would be driven into communistic monasteries or See also:barracks, as also all the schemes of state or state-aided Socialism which were advocated by Louis See also:Blanc and the Collectivists . When he proclaimed in his first memoir on property that " Property is See also:theft," he meant only property in its present, Roman-law, sense of "right of use and abuse"; in property-rights, on the other hand, understood in the limited sense of See also:possession, he saw the best protection against the encroachments of the state . At the same time he did not want violently to dispossess the present owners of land, dwelling-houses, mines, factories and so on . He preferred to attain the same end by rendering capital incapable of earning See also:interest; and this he proposed to obtain by means of a national See also:bank, based on the mutual confidence of all those who are engaged in production, who would agree to exchange among themselves their produces at cost-value, by means of labour cheques representing the See also:hours of labour required to produce every given commodity . Under such a system, which Proudhon described as " Mutuellisme," all the exchanges of services would be strictly See also:equivalent . Besides, such a bank would be enabled to lend money without interest, levying only something like r %, or even less, for covering the cost of See also:administration . Every one being thus enabled to See also:borrow the money that would be required to buy a See also:house, nobody would agree to pay any more a yearly See also:rent for the use of it . A general " social See also:liquidation " would thus be rendered easy, without violent See also:expropriation .

The same applied to mines, railways, factories and so on . In a society of this type the state would be useless . The chief relations between citizens would be based on free agreement and regulated by See also:

mere See also:account keeping . The contests might be settled by See also:arbitration . A penetrating See also:criticism of the state and all possible forms of government, and a deep insight into all economic problems, were well-known characteristics of Proudhon's work . It is See also:worth noticing that French mutualism had its precursor in See also:England, in See also:William See also:Thompson, who began by mutualism before he became a Communist, and in his followers See also:John See also:Gray (A Lecture on Human Happiness, 1825; The Social System, 1831) and J . F . See also:Bray (Labour's Wrongs and Labour's Remedy, 1839) . It had also its precursor in See also:America . See also:Josiah See also:Warren, who was See also:born in 1798 (cf . W . Bailie, Josiah Warren, the First See also:American Anarchist, See also:Boston, 1900), and belonged to See also:Owen's " New Harmony," considered that the failure of this enterprise was chiefly due to the suppression of individuality and the lack of initiative and responsibility .

These defects, he taught, were inherent to every See also:

scheme based upon authority and the community of goods . He advocated, therefore, See also:complete individual liberty . In 1827 he opened in See also:Cincinnati a little See also:country See also:store which was the first " See also:Equity Store," and which the people called " Time Store," because it was based on labour being exchanged See also:hour for hour in all sorts of produce . " Cost—the limit of See also:price," and consequently " no interest," was the See also:motto of his store, and later on of his Equity Village," near New See also:York, which was still in existence in 1865 . Mr See also:Keith's " House of Equity " at Boston, founded in 1855, is also worthy of See also:notice . While the economical, and especially the mutual-banking, ideas of Proudhon found supporters and even a practical application in the See also:United States, his political conception of Anarchy found but little See also:echo in France, where the Christian Socialism of See also:Lamennais and the Fourierists, and the State Socialism of Louis Blanc and the followers of See also:Saint-See also:Simon, were dominating . These ideas found, however, some temporary support among the left-wing Hegelians in See also:Germany, See also:Moses See also:Hess in 1843, and Karl Griin in 1845, who advocated Anarchism . Besides, the authoritarian Communism of Wilhelm Weitling'having given origin to opposition amongst the Swiss working men, Wilhelm Marr gave expression to it in the 'forties . On the other side, Individualist Anarchism found, also in Germany, its fullest expression in Max Stirner (Kaspar See also:Schmidt), whose remarkable See also:works (Der Einzige and sein Eigenthum and articles contributed to the Rheinische Zeitung) remained quite overlooked until they were brought into .prominence by John See also:Henry See also:Mackay . Prof . V . Basch, in a very able introduction to his interesting See also:book, L'Individualisme anarchiste: Max Stirner (1904), has shown how the development of the See also:German philosophy from See also:Kant to See also:Hegel, and " the See also:absolute " of See also:Schelling and the Geist of Hegel, necessarily provoked, when the See also:anti-Hegelian revolt began, the See also:preaching of the same " absolute " in the See also:camp of the rebels .

This was done by Stirner, who advocated, not only a complete revolt against the state and against the See also:

servitude which authoritarian Communism would impose upon men, but also the full liberation of the individual from all social and moral bonds—the rehabilitation of the " I," the supremacy of the individual, complete " a-moralism," and the " association of the egotists." The final conclusion of that sort of Individual Anarchism has been indicated by Prof . Basch . It. maintains that the aim of all See also:superior See also:civilization is, not to permit all members of the community to develop in a normal way, but to permit certain better endowed individuals " fully to develop," even at the cost of the happiness and the very existence of the See also:mass of mankind . It is thus a return towards the most common individualism, advocated by all the would-be superior minorities, to which indeed man owes in his history precisely the state and the See also:rest, which these individualists combat . Their individualism goes so far as to end in a negation of their own starting-point,—to say nothing of the impossibility for the individual to attain a really full development in the conditions of oppression of the masses by the " beautiful aristocracies." His development would remain uni-lateral . This is why this direction of thought, notwithstanding its undoubtedly correct and useful advocacy of the full development of each individuality, finds a See also:hearing only in limited artistic and literary circles . Anarchism in the International Working Men's Association.—A general depression in the propaganda of all fractions of Socialism followed, as is known, after the defeat of the uprising of the Paris working men in See also:June 1848 and the fall of the Republic . All the Socialist See also:press was gagged during the reaction See also:period, which lasted fully twenty years . Nevertheless, even Anarchist thought began to make some progress, namely in the writings of Bellegarrique (Caaurderoy), and especially See also:Joseph Dejacque (See also:Les Lazareennes, L'Humanisphere, an Anarchist-Communist Utopia, lately discovered and reprinted) . The Socialist See also:movement revived only after 1864, when some French working men, all " mutualists," See also:meeting in See also:London during the Universal See also:Exhibition with See also:English followers of See also:Robert Owen, founded the International Working Men's Association . This association developed very rapidly and adopted a policy of direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation, and this policy was followed until 1871 . However, after the Franco-German See also:War, when the International Association was prohibited in France after the uprising of the Commune, the German working men, who hats received manhood See also:suffrage for elections to the newly constituted imperial See also:parliament, insisted upon modifying the See also:tactics of the International, and began to build up a Social-Democratic political party .

Phoenix-squares

This soon led to a See also:

division in the Working Men's Association, and the Latin federations, See also:Spanish, See also:Italian, Belgian and See also:Jurassic (France could not be represented), constituted among themselves a Federal See also:union which See also:broke entirely with the Marxist general See also:council of the International . Within these federations developed now what may be described as modern Anarchism . After the names of " Federalists " and Anti-authoritarians " had been used for some time by these federations the name of " Anarchists," which their adversaries insisted upon applying to them, prevailed, and finally it was revindicated . See also:Bakunin (q.v.) soon became the leading seirit among these Latin federations for the development of the principles of Anarchism, which he did in a number of writings, See also:pamphlets and letters . He demanded the complete abolition of the state, which—he wrote—is a product of See also:religion, belongs to a See also:lower state of civilization, represents the negation of liberty, and spoils even that which it undertakes to do for the sake of general well-being . The state was an historically necessary evil, but its complete extinction will be, sooner or later, equally necessary: Repudiating all legislation, even when issuing from universal suffrage, Bakunin claimed for each nation, each region and each commune, full See also:autonomy, so See also:long as it is not a menace to its neighbours, and full independence for the individual, adding that one becomes really free only when, and in proportion as, all others are free . Free federations of the communes would constitute free nations . As to his economical conceptions, Bakunin described himself, in common with his Federalist comrades of the International (Cesar De Paepe, See also:James See also:Guillaume Schwitzguebel), a " Collectivist Anarchist "—not in the sense of Vidal and Pecqueur in the 'forties, or of their modern Social-Democratic followers, but to See also:express a state of things in which all necessaries for- production are owned in common by the Labour groups and the free communes, while the ways of retribution of labour, Communist or otherwise, would be settled by each See also:group for itself . Social revolution, the near approach of which was foretold at that time-by all Socialists, would be the means of bringing into life the new conditions . The Jurassic, the Spanish, and the Italian federations and sections of the International Working Men's Association, as also the French, the German and the American Anarchist groups, were for the next years the chief centres of Anarchist thought and propaganda . They refrained from any participation in parliamentary politics, and always kept in See also:close contact with the Labour organizations . However, in the second See also:half of the 'eighties and the early 'nineties of the loth century, when the See also:influence of the Anarchists began to be See also:felt in strikes, in the 1st of May demonstrations, where they promoted the See also:idea of a general strike for an eight hours' See also:day, and in the anti-militarist propaganda in the army, violent prosecutions were directed against them, especially in the Latin countries (including See also:physical See also:torture in the See also:Barcelona See also:Castle) and the United States (the See also:execution of five See also:Chicago Anarchists in 1887) .

Against these prosecutions the Anarchists retaliated by acts of violence which in their turn were followed by more executions from above, and new acts of revenge from below . This created in the general public the impression that violence is the substance of Anarchism, a view repudiated by its supporters, who hold that in -reality violence is resorted to by all parties in proportion as their open action is obstructed by repression, and exceptional laws render them outlaws . (Cf . Anarchism and See also:

Outrage, by C . M . See also:Wilson, and See also:Report of the Spanish Atrocities See also:Committee, in " Freedom Pamphlets "; A Concise History of the Great Trial of the Chicago Anarchists, by See also:Dyer Lum (New York, 1886); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches, Sec.)) . - 1 It is important to remember that the See also:term " Anarchist " is inevitably rather loosely used in public,- in connexion with the authors Anarchism continued to develop, partly in the direction of Proudhonian " Mutuellisme," but chiefly as Communist-Anarchism, to which a third direction, Christian-Anarchism, was added by See also:Leo See also:Tolstoy, and a See also:fourth, which might be ascribed as literary-Anarchism, began amongst some prominent modern writers . The ideas of Proudhon, especially as regards mutual banking, corresponding with those of Josiah Warren, found a considerable following in the United States, creating quite a school, of which the main writers are See also:Stephen See also:Pearl See also:Andrews, William Grene, See also:Lysander Spooner (who began to write in 185o, and whose unfinished work, Natural Law, was full of promise), and several others, whose names will be found in Dr Nettlan's Bibliographie de l'anarchie . A prominent position among the Individualist Anarchists in America has been occupied by See also:Benjamin R . See also:Tucker, whose See also:journal Liberty was started in 1881 and whose conceptions are a See also:combination of those of Proudhon with those of See also:Herbert See also:Spencer . Starting from the statement that Anarchistsare egotists, strictly speaking, and that every group of individuals, be it a See also:secret See also:league of a few persons, or the See also:Congress of the United States, has the right to oppress all mankind, provided it has the power to do so, that equal liberty for all and absolute equality oughtto be the law, and " mind every one your own business " is the unique moral law of Anarchism, Tucker goes on to prove that a general and thorough application of these principles would be beneficial and would offer no danger, because the powers of every individual would be limited by the exercise of the equal rights of all others . of a certain class of murderous outrages, and that the same looseness of See also:definition often applies to the professions of " Anarchism " made by such persons .

As stated above, a philosophic Anarchist would repudiate the connexion . And the general public view which regards Anarchist doctrines indiscriminately is to that extent a confusion of terms . But the following resume of the chief modern so-called " Anarchist " incidents is appended for convenience in stating the facts under the heading where a reader would expect to find them . Between 1882 and 1886, in France, See also:

Prince See also:Kropotkin, See also:Louise See also:Michel and others were imprisoned . In England, Most, one of the German Anarchist leaders, founded See also:Die Freiheit, and, for defending in it the assassination of See also:Alexander II. at St See also:Petersburg, was sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment with hard labour . After this he moved to the United States, and re-established his See also:paper there in New York, in May 1886 . During this period there were several Anarchist congresses in the United States . In one at See also:Albany, in 1878, the revolutionary See also:element, led by Justus Schwab, broke away from the others; at See also:Allegheny City, in 1879, again there was a rupture between the peaceful and the revolutionary sections . The See also:Voice of the People at St Louis, the Arbeiter Zeitung at Chicago, and the Anarchist at Boston, were the See also:organs of the revolutionary element . In 1883, at See also:Pittsburg, a congress of twenty-eight delegates, representing twenty-two towns, See also:drew up an address to the working men of America . The See also:programme it proposed was as follows: First, Destruction of the existing class See also:rule by all means, i.e. energetic, relentless, revolutionary and international action . Second, See also:Establishment of a free society, based upon co-operative organization of production .

Third, Free exchange of equivalent products by and between the productive organizations, without See also:

commerce and profit-mongery . Fou>th, Organization of education on a See also:secular, scientific and equal basis for both sexes . Fifth, Equal rights for all, without distinction of See also:sex or See also:race . See also:Sixth, Regulation of all public affairs by free contracts between the autonomous (See also:independent) communes and associations, resting on a federalistic basis . This, together with an See also:appeal to the working men to organize, was published in Chicago, See also:November 1883, by a local committee of four, representing French, Bohemian, German and English sections, the See also:head of the last being See also:August Spies, who was hanged in 1887 for participation in the Haymarket affair in Chicago, 4th May 1886 . This affair was the See also:culmination of a series of encounters between the Chicago working men and the police, which had covered several years . The meeting of 4th May was called by Spies and others to protest against the action of the police, by whom several working men had been killed in collisions growing out of the efforts to intro-duce the eight hours' day . The See also:mayor of the city attended the meeting, but, finding it peaceful, went See also:home . The meeting was subsequently entered by the police and commanded to disperse . A See also:bomb was thrown, several policemen being killed and a number 'wounded . For this See also:crime eight men were tried in one See also:panel and condemned, seven—Spies, See also:Parsons, See also:Engel, See also:Fischer, Fielden, Schwab, and See also:Ling—to See also:death, and one—Neebe—to imprisonment for fifteen He further indicated (following H . Spencer) the difference which exists between the encroachment on somebody's rights and resistance to such an encroachment; between domination and defence: the former being equally condemnable, whether it be encroachment of a criminal upon an individual, or the encroachment of one upon all others, or of all others upon one; while resistance to encroachment is defensible and necessary .

For their self-defence, both the See also:

citizen and the group have the right to any violence, including capital punishment . Violence is also justified for enforcing the See also:duty of keeping an agreement . Tucker thus follows Spencer, and, like him, opens (in the present writer's See also:opinion) the way for reconstituting under the heading of " defence " all the functions of the state . His criticism of the present state is very searching, and his defence of the rights of the individual very powerful . As regards his economical views B . R . Tucker follows Proudhon . The Individualist Anarchism of the American Proudhonians finds, however, but little sympathy amongst the working masses . Those who profess it—they are chiefly " intellectuals "—soon realize that the individualization they so highly praise is not attainable by individual efforts, and either abandon the ranks of the Anarchists, and are driven into the Liberal individualism of the classical economists, or they retire into a sort of Epicurean a-moralism, or super-man-theory, similar to that of Stirner and See also:Nietzsche . The great bulk of the Anarchist working men prefer the Anarchist-Communist ideas which have gradually evolved out of the Anarchist See also:Collectivism of the International Working Men's Association . To this direction belong—to name only the better years . The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were commuted by See also:Governor Oglesby to imprisonment for life, on the recommendation of the presiding See also:judge and the prosecuting See also:attorney .

Ling committed See also:

suicide in jail, and Spies, Parsons, Engel and Fischer were hanged, filth November 1887 . On 26th June 1893 an unconditional See also:pardon was granted the survivors, Fielden, Schwab and Neebe, by Governor Altgeld . The reasons for the pardon were stated by the governor to be that, upon an examination of the records he found that the See also:jury had not been See also:drawn in the usual manner, but by a special See also:bailiff, who made his own selection and had summoned a " prejudiced jury "; that the " state had never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policemen, and the See also:evidence does not show any connexion whatever between the defendants and the man who did throw it," . or that this man " ever heard or read a word coming from the defendants, and consequently fails to show that he acted on any See also:advice given by them." Judge See also:Gary, the judge at the trial, published a defence of its See also:procedure in the Century See also:Magazine, vol. See also:xxiii p . 803 . A number of outbreaks in later years were attributed to the propaganda of reform by revolution, like those in See also:Spain and France in 1892, in which Ravachol was a prominent figure . In 1893 a bomb was exploded in the French Chamber of Deputies by Vaillant . The spirit of these men is well illustrated by the reply which Vaillant made to the judge who reproached him for endangering the lives of See also:innocent men and See also:women: " There can be no innocent See also:bourgeois." In 1894 there was an See also:explosion in a Parisian cafe, and another in a See also:theatre at Barcelona . For the latter outrage six men were executed . See also:President See also:Carnot of the French Republic was assassinated by an Italian at See also:Lyons in the same See also:year . The empress See also:Elizabeth of See also:Austria was assassinated in See also:September 1898 . These events, all associated by the public with " Anarchism," led to the passage by the United States Congress of a law, in 1894, to keep out See also:foreign Anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the country, and also to the assemblage of an international See also:conference in See also:Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some See also:plan for dealing with these revolutionists . It was proposed that their offences should no longer be classed as political, but as common-law crimes, and be made subject to See also:extradition .

The suppression of the revolutionary press and the international co-operation of the police were also suggested . The results of the conference were not, however, published; and the question of how to See also:

deal with the See also:campaign against society See also:fell for a while into See also:abeyance . The See also:attempt made by the youth Sipido on the (then) prince of See also:Wales at See also:Brussels in 1900 recalled See also:attention to the subject . The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the Belgian government to see that justice was done in an affair of such international importance, excited considerable feeling in England, and was the occasion of a strongly-worded See also:note from the See also:British to the Belgian government . The See also:murder of See also:King See also:Humbert of See also:Italy in See also:July 1900 renewed the outcry against Ptalian Anarchists . Even greater horror and indignation were excited by the assassination of President See also:McKinley by Czolgoscz on the 6th of September 1901, at See also:Buffalo, U.S.A . And a particularly dastardly attempt was made to See also:blow up the See also:young king and See also:queen of Spain on their See also:wedding-day in 1906 . (ED . B.B.) known exponents of Anarchism—Elisee See also:Reclus, See also:Jean See also:Grave, Sebastien See also:Faure, Emile Pouget in France; Enrico Malatesta and Covelli in Italy; R . Mella, A . Lorenzo, and the mostly unknown authors of many excellent manifestos in Spain; John Most amongst the Germans; Spies, Parsons and their followers in the United States, and so on; while Domela Nieuwenhuis occupies an intermediate position in See also:Holland . The chief Anarchist papers which have been published since '88o also belong to that direction; while a number of Anarchists of this direction have joined the so-called Syndicalist movement—the French name for the non-political Labour movement, devoted to direct struggle with capitalism, which has lately become so prominent in See also:Europe .

As one of the Anarchist-Communist direction, the present writer for many years endeavoured to develop the following ideas: to show the intimate, logical connexion which exists between the modern philosophy of natural sciencesandAnarchism; to put Anarchism on a scientific basis by the study of the tendencies that are apparent now in society and may indicate its further evolution; and to work out the basis of Anarchist See also:

ethics . As regards the substance of Anarchism itself, it was Kropotkin's aim to prove that Communism—at least partial—has more chances of being established than Collectivism, especially in communes taking the lead, and that Free, or Anarchist-Communism is the only form of Communism that has any See also:chance of being accepted in civilized See also:societies; Communism and Anarchy are therefore two terms of evolution which complete each other, the one rendering the other possible and acceptable . He has tried, moreover, to indicate how, during a revolutionary period, a large city—if its inhabitants have accepted the idea—could organize itself on the lines of Free Communism; the city guaranteeing to every inhabitant dwelling, See also:food and clothing to an extent corresponding to the comfort now available to the See also:middle classes only, in exchange for a half-day's, or a five-hours' work; and how all those things which would be considered as luxuries might be obtained by every one if he joins for the other half of the day all sorts of free associations pursuing all possible aims—educational, literary, scientific, artistic, See also:sports and so on . In See also:order to prove the first of these assertions he has analysed the possibilities of See also:agriculture and See also:industrial work, both being combined with See also:brain work . And in order to elucidate the main factors of human evolution, he has analysed the See also:part played in history by the popular constructive agencies of mutual aid and the historical role of the state . Without naming himself an Anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his predecessors in the popular religious movements of the 15th and '6th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the Anarchist position as regards the state and property rights, deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings of the See also:Christ and from the necessary dictates of See also:reason . With all the might of his See also:talent he made (especially in The See also:Kingdom of See also:God in Yourselves) a powerful criticism of the church, the state and law altogether, and especially of the present property laws . He describes the state as the domination of the wicked ones, supported by brutal force . Robbers, he says, are far less dangerous than a well-organized government . He makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are current now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church, the state and the existing See also:distribution of property, and from the teachings of the Christ he deduces the rule of non-resistance and the absolute condemnation of all See also:wars . His religious arguments are, however, so well combined with arguments borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the present evils, that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious and the non-religious reader alike . It would be impossible to represent here, in a See also:short See also:sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of Anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best comtemporary writers have exercised upon the development of Anarchism .

One ought to consult the ten big volumes of the Supplement litteraire to the paper La revolte and later the Temps nouveaux, which contain repro-ductions from the works of hundreds of modern authors expressing Anarchist ideas, in order to realize how closely Anarchism is connected with all the intellectual movement of our own times . J . S . See also:

Mill's Liberty, Spencer's Individual versus The State, Marc Guyau's Morality without See also:Obligation or See also:Sanction, and See also:Fouillee's La morale, fart et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E . Douwes See also:Dekker), See also:Richard See also:Wagner's See also:Art and Revolution, the works of Nietzsche, See also:Emerson, W . See also:Lloyd See also:Garrison, See also:Thoreau, Alexander Herzen, See also:Edward See also:Carpenter and so on; and in the domain of fiction, the dramas of See also:Ibsen, the See also:poetry of Walt See also:Whitman, Tolstoy's War and See also:Peace, See also:Zola's Paris and Le travail, the latest works of Merezhkovsky, and an infinity of works of less known authors,—are full of ideas which show how closely Anarchism is interwoven with the work that is going on in modern thought in the same direction of enfranchisement Of man from the bonds of the state as well as from those of capitalism .

End of Article: ANARCHISM (from the Gr. av-, and (Ipxrt, contrary to authority)
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The author of this article is the great Russian anarchist and naturalist Peter Kropotkin
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