AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.)  . The religious See also:

• POETRY

poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, which was fatal to Religious See also:

• ORIGINAL

original development . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• WORK

work of this class is poetry. the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and dimeters, which was handed down in the See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts with the Paedagogus of See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably not his work . The next piece of this class is the famous " Maidens' See also:

• SONG

Song " in the Banquet of St See also:

• METHODIUS (c. 825-885)

Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent . More faithful to the tradition of the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools was See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory of Nazianzus . But, owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification and very erudite See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, his poems failed to reach the See also:

• PEOPLE

people or to find a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the services of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church . Just as little could the artificial See also:

• PARAPHRASE (Gr. irapa¢pavis, from rrapa4p4av, to relate something in different words, 'raga, beside, and ¢pai"eav, speak, tell)

paraphrase of the See also:

• PSALMS, BOOK
• PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER

Psalms composed by the younger See also:

• APOLLINARIS
• APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS

Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of See also:

• SYNESIUS (c. 373-c. 414)

Synesius, become popular . It became more and more patent that, with the archaic See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre which was out of keeping with the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the living language, no genuine poetry suited to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age could possibly be produced . Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical See also:

• ART

art was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the blessings of an intelligible religious poetry—the rhythmic poem . This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, which had disappeared from the living language, but on the See also:

• ACCENT

accent . Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution of accent for the old See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long syllables; the ancient See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse form was entirely abandoned, and in its See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead new and variously constructed lines and strophes were formed . In the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked—the preparatory See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period; that of the See also:

• HYMNS

hymns; and that of the Canones .

About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively little . It appears that in it church See also:

• MUSIC

music was in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main confined to the insertion of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short songs between the Psalms or other portions of See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit, writ, from writan, to write)

Writ and the acclamations of the See also:

• CONGREGATION (Lat. congregatio, a gathering together, from cum, with, grex, gregis, a flock, herd)

congregation . The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzushis " Maidens' Song " and his " Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in the See also:

• GRAND

grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs comprising from twenty to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty similarly constructed strophes, each connected with the next in See also:

• ACROSTIC (Gr. aKpos, at the end, and arixos, line or verse)

acrostic See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . Hymnology, again, attained its highest perfection in the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century with See also:

• ROMANOS

Romanos, who in the See also:

• GREAT

great number and excellence of his hymns dominated this See also:

• SPECIES

species of poetry, as See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer did the Greek epic . From this period See also:

• DATES

dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called Acathistus, an See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, which hassometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch See also:

• SERGIUS, ST

Sergius . Church poetry entered upon a new See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, characterized by an increase in See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of the Canones, songs artfully Canones. built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently constructed . Andreas, See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete (c . 650-72o), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song . His See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief work, " the great See also:

• CANON

Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes . The most celebrated writers of Canones are See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John of See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus and See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first half of the 8th century . The " vulgar " simplicity of Romanos was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again resorted to the classical See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John of Damascus even took a See also:

• SPECIAL

special delight in the most elaborate tricks of expression . In spite of this, or perhaps on that very See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, were much read, and—as was very necessary—much commentated .

Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople by the See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot See also:

• THEODORUS, FLAVIUS MALLIUS

Theodorus and others . Again, in the 9th century, See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph, " the hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John Mauropus (11th century), See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Euchaita, John See also:

• ZONARAS, JOANNES (JOHN)

Zonaras (12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e . Canones . The Basilian See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, founded in 1004, and-still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry . As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded as certain that its origin was in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . Old See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew and Syrian See also:

• MODELS

models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (q.v.) was especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian See also:

• FATHER

father Ephraem (d. about 373) . In profane literature the See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of history takes the first place, as regards both form and substance . The Greeks have always been deeply interested in history, and they have profane never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their literature; existence, to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand down a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record to posterity . Thus, See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical they have produced a literature extending from the accounts . Ionian logographers and See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus down to the times of See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

Sultan Mahommed II . In the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine period all historical accounts fall under one of two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, entirely different, both in form and in See also:

• MATTER

matter, (1) historical See also:

• WORKS

works, the authors of which described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2) See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the See also:

• WORLD

world . This latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature .

The most clearly marked stage in the development of a See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian-Byzantine universal history was the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew, Justus of See also:

• TIBERIAS

Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work began with the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses . Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring . Yet even this is often very faint and blurred owing to See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close adherence to ancient methods . Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine historiography . In their style most Byzantine compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older historians, e.g . Herodotus, See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides, and, in some details, also See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius . But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation, they displayed considerable See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power in the delineation of character and were not wanting in See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment . As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the old See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors See also:

• LEFT

left off . The outstripping of the Latin See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West by the Greek East, which after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in historiography also . After See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine the Great, the history of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g . See also:

• EUNAPIUS

Eunapius (c . 400), See also:

• OLYMPIODORUS

Olympiodorus (c .

450), See also:

• PRISCUS

Priscus (c . 450), Malchus (c . 490), and See also:

• ZOSIMUS

Zosimus, the last See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan historian (c . 500), all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments . Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century . The powerful See also:

• PROCOPIUS

Procopius and See also:

• AGATHIAS (c. A.D. 536—582)

Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric, described the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while See also:

• THEOPHANES

Theophanes of See also:

• BYZANTIUM

Byzantium, See also:

• MENANDER
• MENANDER (342–291 B.C.)
• MENANDER (MILINDA)

Menander See also:

• PROTECTOR

Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia. and Theophylactus of See also:

• SIMOCATTA

Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century . Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent ecclesiastical historian, See also:

• EVAGRIUS (c. 536–600)

Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593 . There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off in See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production . From the 7th to the loth century the historical See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side is represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the loth century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of writing history showed some signs of See also:

• LIFE

life . .Several historical works are associated with the name of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Constantine VII . Porphyrogenitus . To his learned circle be-longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886 .

A little work, interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D . 904), which a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, Johannes Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity . There is also contained in the excellent work of See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo Diaconus (on the period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody See also:

• WARS

wars of the Byzantines with the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians . A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael See also:

• PSELLUS (Gr.'I' XXor)

Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077 . A valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata . The history of the Eastern empire during the See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus See also:

• BRYENNIUS, NICEPHORUS (1062-1137)

Bryennius, his learned See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort See also:

• ANNA
• ANNA (Hindustani ana)
• ANNA, BALDASARRE

Anna Comnena, the " honest Aetolian," Johannes See also:

• CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN

Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas See also:

• ACOMINATUS (AKOMINATOS), MICHAEL (c. 1140-1220)

Acominatus in an exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade . The See also:

• MELANCHOLY (Gr. µe)tayXotia, from µEtas, black, and Xotii, bile)

melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th–15th centuries) are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer following of classical models . The events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the restoration of Byzantine See also:

• RULE

rule (1203–1261) are recounted ,by Georgius See also:

• ACROPOLITA (AKROPOLITES), GEORGE (1217–1282)

Acropolita, who emphasizes his own See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in them . The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius See also:

• PACHYMERES, GEORGIUS (1242-c. 1310)

Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus See also:

• GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360)

Gregoras, and the emperor John VI . Cantacuzenus . Lastly, the See also:

• DEATH

death-struggle between the East See also:

• ROMAN

Roman empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalcocondyles, See also:

• DUCAS
• DUCAS (15th cent.)

Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes . With them may be classed a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a high-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born Greek of See also:

• IMBROS

Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II .

(down to 1467) . The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that they in See also:

• PART

part replace older lost works, Citron- and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey ides . (e.g. for the period from about 600 to Soo of which very few records remain) . They See also:

• LAY

lay no claim to See also:

• LITERARY

literary merit, but are often serviceable for the history of language . Many such chronicles were furnished with illustrations . The remains of one such illustrated chronicle on See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus, dating from the beginning' of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the See also:

• SOIL

soil of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt.' The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks, ,who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works . And it is due to 'See Ad . See also:

• BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882)

Bauer and J . Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinische Weltchronik•" (1905) (Denkschrift der kaiserlich . Akademie der Wissenschaften, li.).these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slays, and in all of them sowed the seeds of an indigenous historical literature . Thus the chronicles, despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of material were for the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general culture of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages of far greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium . The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved to us is that of See also:

• MALALAS (or MALELAS) (Syriac for " orator "), JOHN (c. 491-578)

Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest type of this class of literature .

In the 7th century was completed the famous See also:

• EASTER

Easter or See also:

• PASCHAL (Paschalis)

Paschal Chronicle (Chronicon Paschale) . About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century Georgius See also:

• SYNCELLUS

Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began with the Creation and was continued down to the See also:

• YEAR

year 284 . At the See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request of the author, when on his death-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed, the continuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes See also:

• CONFESSOR

Confessor, who brought down the account from A.D . 284 to his own times (A.D . 813) . This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes was again continued (from 813–961) by several anonymous chroniclers . A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period from 602 to 769, a See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch from See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam down to the year of his own death in 829 . Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance as chronicler of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Byzantine period, who compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year 843, the end of the Iconoclast See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement), far more theological and monkish in character than the work of Theophanes . Among later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously . His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary history . Georgius Cedrenus (c . Too) embodied the whole of Scylitza's work, almost unaltered, in his Universal Chronicle .

In the 12th century the general increase in literary production was evident also in the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of chronicles of the world . From this period dates, for instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great universal chronicle of John Zonaras . In the same century Michael See also:

• GLYCAS, MICHAEL

Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers . Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine See also:

• MANASSES, CONSTANTINE
• MANASSES, PRAYER OF

Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called " See also:

• POLITICAL

political " verse . With this verse-chronicle must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century . See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography and See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography, subjects so closely connected with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political forerunners, the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans . Of purely See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical importance are a few handbooks of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, grap aphy . itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of provinces and cities, See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan See also:

• SEES

sees and bishoprics . The See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from Justinian's See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, has been lost . To the same period belongs the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes . For the topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History (Patria)- of Constantinople, which may be compared to the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in See also:

• LATE

late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain See also:

• CODINUS, GEORGE[GEORGIOS KODINOS]

Codinus, is of great importance . Ancient Greek See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy under the empire sent forth two new shoots—See also:

• NEOPYTHAGOREANISM

Neopythagoreanism and See also:

• NEOPLATONISM

Neoplatonism .

It was the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to Phil See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem the advancing See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity . The last great soppy. exponent of this philosophy was See also:

• PROCLUS, or PROCULUS (A.D. 410-485)

Proclus in See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens (d . 485) . The See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution, by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of Justinian, of the school of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow to this nebulous See also:

• SYSTEM

system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living force . In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases . See also:

• LEONTIUS

Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was John of Damascus . Owing, however, to his having early attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West . Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas . In the 11th century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought See also:

• PLATO

Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion . Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an indispensable aid to instruction . It would be difficult to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their practical application: See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical school essays, which here See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count as " literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of which are wholly insignificant . The evil effects of this were See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt beyond the proper See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of rhetoric .

The anxious See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention paid to the See also:

• LAWS

laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers were detrimental to a great part of the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of style . None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the See also:

• PHILOPATRIS

Philopatris, in the style of See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of Nicephorus See also:

• PHOCAS

Phocas (loth century) . In two other smaller works a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the See also:

• PATTERN

pattern of Lucian's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Timarion (12th century) and in Mazaris' Journey to the Underworld (c . 1414) . A very charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems . In the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of scientific production, which can be accounted literature in the See also:

• MODERN

modern acceptation of the See also:

• TERM

term only in a limited sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant and even See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque extent by the rules of what in modern times is termed " classical scholarship." The numerous works which belong to this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category, such as grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors, extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical See also:

• TREATISES

treatises, are of little general See also:

• INTEREST

interest, although of great value for special branches of philological study, e.g. for tracing the influences through which the ancient works handed down to us have passed, as well as for their See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation and emenda- tion; for See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information about ancient authors now lost; for the history of See also:

• EDUCATION

education; and for the underlying principles of in- tellectual life in Byzantium . The most important See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of Byzantine See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology is, perhaps, the Library of the patriarch See also:

• PHOTIUS
• PHOTIUS (c. 82o-891)

Photius . The period from about 65o to 85o is marked by a general decay of culture . Photius, who in the year 85o was about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, thus contributing to its preservation . He gave an account of all that he read, and in this way composed 28o essays, which were collected in what is commonly known as the Library or Myriobiblon . The character of the individual sketches is somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less See also:

• COMPLETE

complete account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which is nearly always confined to the linguistic form . With this work may be compared in importance the great Lexikon of Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclo- paedia, of which the main feature was its articles on the history ,of literature .

A truly sympathetic figure is See also:

• EUSTATHIUS
• EUSTATHIUS, or EUMATHIUS

Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century) . His volumin- ous commentaries on Homer, however, See also:

• RIVET (0. Fr. rivet, from river, to fix, fasten together, of unknown origin; Skeat compares Icel. rifa, to stitch together)

rivet the attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic See also:

• ACTION

action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, and last, not least, his See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

frank and heroic character, which had nothing in it of the Byzantine . If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a See also:

• CARICATURE (Ital. caricatura, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo," from caricare, to load, to charge; Fr. charge)

caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes See also:

• TZETZES, JOHN

Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics . The transition to Western See also:

• HUMANISM (from Lat. humanus, human, connected with holm)

humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi, such as See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus See also:

• PLANUDES, MAXIMUS (c. 1260-1330)

Planudes, whose See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations of numerous works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West; See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel See also:

• MOSCHOPULUS ("little calf," probably a nickname), MANUEL

Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books; See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others . Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his Corpus See also:

• JURIS

juris, the Hellenizing of the legal language also began . The Institutes and the See also:

• DIGEST

Digest were trans- prudde eunce. lated into Greek, and the Novels also were issued in Pr a Greek form . Under the Macedonian See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty there began, after a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of Justinian . The emperor Basilius I . (867–886) had extracts made from the existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws . But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Wise •(886–912), and Constantine VII . Porphyrogenitus (912–959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from the Digests, the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known as the See also:

• BASILICA

Basilica (Ta i wmXtKa) .

In the East it completely superseded the old Latin Corpus juris of Justinian . More that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law than in See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular legislation . The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the Canones, were blended with those of See also:

• CIVIL

civil law, and thus arose the so-called Nomocanon, the most important edition of which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090 . The alphabetical handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great influence . In the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy the remarkable fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to Mathe-Perso-Arabian influence . The Great Syntaxis of matics See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy operated in the See also:

• ORIENTAL

oriental See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise of the Almagest. and as-The most important See also:

• DIRECT

direct source of this intellectual f0i my. See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan was not See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, however, but See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . Towards the close of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian astronomy . At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius Chrysococca and See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises based on Persian works . Then the Byzantines themselves, notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had recourse to the original Greek See also:

• SOURCES

sources . The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military science . The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics, which has sciennce . Mli ce .

come down to posterity associated with the name of Leo VI., the Wise . Of profane poetry—in complete contrast to sacred poetry—the general characteristic was its close imitation of the See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique in point of form . All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are framed after profane poetry . ancient models . The metre is, for the most part, either the Byzantine See also:

• REGULAR

regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the " political " verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic See also:

• MEASURES

measures . Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of the period there are several which can BPk. be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age . See also:

• NONNUS (Egyptian for " saint ")

Nonnus (c . 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the triumphal progress of the See also:

• GOD

god See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus to See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, and, as a Christian, a voluminous commentary on the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel of St John . In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy See also:

• IAMBIC

iambic poems the See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial deeds of the emperor See also:

• HERACLIUS ('HpaeXaos) (c. 575-642)

Heraclius, while the See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

deacon See also:

• THEODOSIUS

Theodosius (loth century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas . Rhetoric . The sciences . BYZANTINE] From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed Didactic partly in duodecasyllables and partly in " political " poems. verse, made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in large quantities .

Didactic religious poems were composed, for example, by See also:

• PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS

Philippus (6 Movorporres, Solitarius, c. moo), grammaticophilological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel See also:

• PHILES, MANUEL (c. 1275–1345)

Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century) . To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Romances . Greek romances . They all date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni . Two of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in " political " verse, the love story of See also:

• ARISTANDER

Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in See also:

• PROSE

prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all . The See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane Lyrics lyrical poetry . At most a few poems by Johannes Geometres and See also:

• CHRISTOPHORUS

Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in which See also:

• PERSONAL

personal experiences are recorded with some show of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, may be placed in this category . The dominant form for all subjective poetry was the See also:

• EPIGRAM

epigram, which was employed in all its See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems . Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the most diverse themes . In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium had lighted upon the happy See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of immortalizing The monastic life in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of epigrams . The same epigram . century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality .

Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the loth and 11th centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus . Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel Philes (14th century) . From the beginning of the loth century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Palatina (see See also:

• ANTHOLOGY

ANTHOLOGY) . Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition precedent to its existence, namely, public See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

Drama. performance . Apart from some moralizing allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at least in See also:

• EXTERNAL

external form, resembles a drama: the Sufferings of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ (X pwror Hdcr wv) . This work, written probably in the 12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a See also:

• CENTO
• CENTO (Gr. idvrpwv, Lat. cento, patchwork)

cento, i.e. is in great measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g . See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus, See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides and See also:

• LYCOPHRON

Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to the dramatic production . The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents . We have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval Vernacu- matter . While in the artificial literature prose is See also:

• TAR

tar Greek literature. pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, both in quantity and quality, takes .the first place, as was also the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of prose . Though a few preliminary attempts were made (See also:

• PROVERBS, BOOK OF (Heb. Mishle Slzelomoh, " Proverbs of Solomon," abridged by the later Jews to Mishle; Septuagint, irapotpiai or II. EaX.; Lat. Vulg. Parabolae sal. and Liber proverbiorum)

proverbs, 'acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the i 2th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major portion were See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in " political " verse, but some in the See also:

• TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxalos, rpoxaixos; Lat. trochaeus)

trochaic eight-syllabled See also:

• LINE

line . Towards the close of the 15th century See also:

• RHYME

rhyme came into use .

The subjects treated in this vernacular 523 poetry are exce