AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.)  . The religious

poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the influence of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to Religious original development . The oldest work of this class is poetry. the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts with the Paedagogus of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably not his work . The next piece of this class is the famous " Maidens' Song " in the Banquet of St Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent . More faithful to the tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus . But, owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people or to find a place in the services of the church . Just as little could the artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the younger Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of Synesius, become popular . It became more and more patent that, with the archaic metre which was out of keeping with the character of the living language, no genuine poetry suited to the age could possibly be produced . Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical art was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the blessings of an intelligible religious poetry—the rhythmic poem . This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, which had disappeared from the living language, but on the accent . Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution of accent for the old long syllables; the ancient verse form was entirely abandoned, and in its stead new and variously constructed lines and strophes were formed . In the history of the rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked—the preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the Canones .

About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively little . It appears that in it church

music was in the main confined to the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other portions of Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation . The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzushis " Maidens' Song " and his " Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs comprising from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each connected with the next in acrostic fashion . Hymnology, again, attained its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th century with Romanos, who in the great number and excellence of his hymns dominated this species of poetry, as Homer did the Greek epic . From this period dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called Acathistus, an anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which hassometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch Sergius . Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an increase in artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the composition of the Canones, songs artfully Canones. built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently constructed . Andreas, archbishop of Crete (c . 650-72o), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song . His chief work, " the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes . The most celebrated writers of Canones are John of Damascus and Cosmas of Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first half of the 8th century . The " vulgar " simplicity of Romanos was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again resorted to the classical style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John of Damascus even took a special delight in the most elaborate tricks of expression . In spite of this, or perhaps on that very account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, were much read, and—as was very necessary—much commentated .

Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium at

Constantinople by the abbot Theodorus and others . Again, in the 9th century, Joseph, " the hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras (12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e . Canones . The Basilian Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in 1004, and-still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry . As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded as certain that its origin was in the East . Old Hebrew and Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (q.v.) was especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian father Ephraem (d. about 373) . In profane literature the writing of history takes the first place, as regards both form and substance . The Greeks have always been deeply interested in history, and they have profane never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their literature; existence, to hand down a record to posterity . Thus, historical they have produced a literature extending from the accounts . Ionian logographers and Herodotus down to the times of Sultan Mahommed II . In the Byzantine period all historical accounts fall under one of two groups, entirely different, both in form and in matter, (1) historical works, the authors of which described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2) chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world . This latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature .

The most clearly marked stage in the development of a

Christian-Byzantine universal history was the chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work began with the story of Moses . Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring . Yet even this is often very faint and blurred owing to close adherence to ancient methods . Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new critical method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine historiography . In their style most Byzantine compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older historians, e.g . Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also Polybius . But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to imitation, they displayed considerable power in the delineation of character and were not wanting in independent judgment . As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the old custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors left off . The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in historiography also . After Constantine the Great, the history of the empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g . Eunapius (c . 400), Olympiodorus (c .

450),

Priscus (c . 450), Malchus (c . 490), and Zosimus, the last pagan historian (c . 500), all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments . Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century . The powerful Procopius and Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia. and Theophylactus of Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century . Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593 . There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off in production . From the 7th to the loth century the historical side is represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the loth century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of writing history showed some signs of life . .Several historical works are associated with the name of the emperor Constantine VII . Porphyrogenitus . To his learned circle be-longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886 .

A little work, interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical

science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D . 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity . There is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians . A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077 . A valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata . The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius, his learned consort Anna Comnena, the " honest Aetolian," Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade . The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th–15th centuries) are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer following of classical models . The events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the restoration of Byzantine rule (1203–1261) are recounted ,by Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them . The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus Gregoras, and the emperor John VI . Cantacuzenus . Lastly, the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalcocondyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes . With them may be classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II .

(down to 1467) . The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that they in

part replace older lost works, Citron- and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey ides . (e.g. for the period from about 600 to Soo of which very few records remain) . They lay no claim to literary merit, but are often serviceable for the history of language . Many such chronicles were furnished with illustrations . The remains of one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the beginning' of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the soil of Egypt.' The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks, ,who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works . And it is due to 'See Ad . Bauer and J . Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinische Weltchronik•" (1905) (Denkschrift der kaiserlich . Akademie der Wissenschaften, li.).these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slays, and in all of them sowed the seeds of an indigenous historical literature . Thus the chronicles, despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium . The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved to us is that of Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest type of this class of literature .

In the 7th century was completed the famous

Easter or Paschal Chronicle (Chronicon Paschale) . About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284 . At the request of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, who brought down the account from A.D . 284 to his own times (A.D . 813) . This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes was again continued (from 813–961) by several anonymous chroniclers . A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the year of his own death in 829 . Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year 843, the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and monkish in character than the work of Theophanes . Among later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously . His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary history . Georgius Cedrenus (c . Too) embodied the whole of Scylitza's work, almost unaltered, in his Universal Chronicle .

In the 12th century the general increase in literary production was evident also in the

department of chronicles of the world . From this period dates, for instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great universal chronicle of John Zonaras . In the same century Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers . Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called " political " verse . With this verse-chronicle must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century . Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political forerunners, the Romans . Of purely practical importance are a few handbooks of navigation, grap aphy . itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics . The geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from Justinian's time, has been lost . To the same period belongs the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes . For the topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History (Patria)- of Constantinople, which may be compared to the medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great importance . Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two new shoots—Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism .

It was the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to Phil

stem the advancing tide of Christianity . The last great soppy. exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens (d . 485) . The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living force . In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases . Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was John of Damascus . Owing, however, to his having early attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West . Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas . In the 11th century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion . Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an indispensable aid to instruction . It would be difficult to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their practical application: mechanical school essays, which here count as " literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of which are wholly insignificant . The evil effects of this were felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric .

The anxious

attention paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of style . None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the Philopatris, in the style of Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of Nicephorus Phocas (loth century) . In two other smaller works a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the pattern of Lucian's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Timarion (12th century) and in Mazaris' Journey to the Underworld (c . 1414) . A very charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems . In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant and even grotesque extent by the rules of what in modern times is termed " classical scholarship." The numerous works which belong to this category, such as grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors, extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value for special branches of philological study, e.g. for tracing the influences through which the ancient works handed down to us have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emenda- tion; for information about ancient authors now lost; for the history of education; and for the underlying principles of in- tellectual life in Byzantium . The most important monument of Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the Library of the patriarch Photius . The period from about 65o to 85o is marked by a general decay of culture . Photius, who in the year 85o was about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, thus contributing to its preservation . He gave an account of all that he read, and in this way composed 28o essays, which were collected in what is commonly known as the Library or Myriobiblon . The character of the individual sketches is somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which is nearly always confined to the linguistic form . With this work may be compared in importance the great Lexikon of Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclo- paedia, of which the main feature was its articles on the history ,of literature .

A truly sympathetic figure is

Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century) . His volumin- ous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had nothing in it of the Byzantine . If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics . The transition to Western humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi, such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others . Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman law . But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his Corpus juris, the Hellenizing of the legal language also began . The Institutes and the Digest were trans- prudde eunce. lated into Greek, and the Novels also were issued in Pr a Greek form . Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian . The emperor Basilius I . (867–886) had extracts made from the existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws . But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the Wise •(886–912), and Constantine VII . Porphyrogenitus (912–959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from the Digests, the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known as the Basilica (Ta i wmXtKa) .

In the East it completely superseded the old Latin Corpus juris of Justinian . More that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law than in

secular legislation . The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the Canones, were blended with those of civil law, and thus arose the so-called Nomocanon, the most important edition of which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090 . The alphabetical handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great influence . In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to Mathe-Perso-Arabian influence . The Great Syntaxis of matics Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the Almagest. and as-The most important direct source of this intellectual f0i my. loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia . Towards the close of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with Persian astronomy . At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises based on Persian works . Then the Byzantines themselves, notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had recourse to the original Greek sources . The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military science . The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on tactics, which has sciennce . Mli ce .

come down to posterity associated with the name of Leo VI., the Wise . Of profane poetry—in complete contrast to sacred poetry—the general characteristic was its close imitation of the

antique in point of form . All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are framed after profane poetry . ancient models . The metre is, for the most part, either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the " political " verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic measures . Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of the period there are several which can BPk. be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age . Nonnus (c . 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John . In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while the deacon Theodosius (loth century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas . Rhetoric . The sciences . BYZANTINE] From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed Didactic partly in duodecasyllables and partly in " political " poems. verse, made their appearance in large quantities .

Didactic religious poems were composed, for example, by

Philippus (6 Movorporres, Solitarius, c. moo), grammaticophilological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century) . To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Romances . Greek romances . They all date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni . Two of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in " political " verse, the love story of Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all . The objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane Lyrics lyrical poetry . At most a few poems by Johannes Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in which personal experiences are recorded with some show of taste, may be placed in this category . The dominant form for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which was employed in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems . Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the most diverse themes . In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing The monastic life in a series of epigrams . The same epigram . century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality .

Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the loth and 11th centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus . Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel Philes (14th century) . From the beginning of the loth century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Palatina (see

ANTHOLOGY) . Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the condition precedent to its existence, namely, public Drama. performance . Apart from some moralizing allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at least in external form, resembles a drama: the Sufferings of Christ (X pwror Hdcr wv) . This work, written probably in the 12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g . Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to the dramatic production . The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents . We have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval Vernacu- matter . While in the artificial literature prose is tar Greek literature. pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, both in quantity and quality, takes .the first place, as was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of prose . Though a few preliminary attempts were made (proverbs, 'acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the i 2th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major portion were cast in " political " verse, but some in the trochaic eight-syllabled line . Towards the close of the 15th century rhyme came into use .

The subjects treated in this vernacular 523 poetry are exceedingly diverse . In the

capital city a mixture of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems of admonition, praise and supplication . In this oldest class of " vulgar " works must be reckoned the Spaneas, an admonitory poem in imitation of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theodorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos) . In the succeeding period erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed . W . Wagner, Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like romances such as the Story of Ptocholeon, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of saints, &c . Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a separate group . To these may be added romances in verse after the manner of the works written in the artificial classical language, e.g . Callimachus and Chrysorrhoe, Belthandrus and Chrysantza, Lybistrus and Rhodamne, also romances in verse after the Western pattern, such as Phlorius and Platziaphlora (the old French story of Flore et Blanchefleur) . Curious are also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables of the Physiologus, a history of quadrupeds, and a book of birds, both written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox . Of quite peculiar originality- also are several legendary and historical poems, in which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated . There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c .

In respect of importance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas stands pre-eminent . Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least in a

compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering of two works from an Indian source, the Book of the Seven Wise Masters (as Syntipas the Philosopher by P vulgar" Michael Andreopulus), and the Hitopadera or Mirror wor&s. of Princes (through the Arabic Kalilah and Dimnah by Simeon Sethus as Ere4iavlens Kai 'IKVrtXarrtr ), a fish book, a fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles) . To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c . In spite of many individual successes, the literature written in the vulgar tongue succumbed, in the race for existence, to its elder sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek . This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the ancient language in the state, the schools and the church . The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the history of the world is beyond dispute . The Christians of the East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand Generat years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the steam-violent onslaught of the barbarians . They also called cane of into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature . Byzaattne literature . They communicated the treasures of the old pagan as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians, the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs and the Russians . Through their teaching they created a new East European culture, embodied above all in the Russian empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality touches the two extremes of Greek and Slay . Finally the learned men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with rich germs of culture .

2 . Language:

Grammar: A . N . Jannaris (Giannaris), An Historical Greek Grammar (1897); A . Dieterich, " Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit bis zum loten Jahrhundert," in Byzant . Archiv, i . (1898) . Glossary: Ducange, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis (1688), in which particular attention is paid to the " vulgar " language; E . A . Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods (3rd ed., 1888) . 3 . Theology: Chief work, A .

Ehrhard in

Krumbacher's Geschichte der byz . Lit. pp . 1-218 . For the ancient period, cf. the works on Greek patrology (under article FAlimas OF THE CHURCH) . Collective edition of the Fathers (down to the 15th century) ; Patrologia, series Graeca (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866) . Church poetry: A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W . Christ and M . Paranikas, entitled Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum (1871) . Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of Romanos, were published by Cardinal J . B . Pitra, under the title Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata (1876) . A complete edition of the hymns is edited by K .

Krumbacher . 4 . Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine historians and chroniclers was begun under

Louis XIV., and continued later (1648-1819), called the Paris Corpus . This whole collection was on B . G . Niebuhr's advice republished with some additions (Bonn, 1828-1878), under the title Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantine . The most important authors have also appeared in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana . A few Byzantine and oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited by J . B . Bury (1898 seq.) . 5 . Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective editions are: W .

Wagner, Medieval Greek Texts (187o), Carmina Graeca Medii Aevi (1874), Trois Poemes grecs du mpyen age (1881) ; E . Legrand, Collection de monuments pour servir a l'etude de la langue neo-helienique (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), Bibliothique grecque vulgaire (in 8 vols., 188o-1896) . (K . KR.) After the

capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek national life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror . Learned Greeks found a refuge away from their native land; they spoke the languages of foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek . The fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the continuity of Greek literary history . Nor had that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western Europe . The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered the contact closer . Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had, endeavoured to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church . Many had become connected by marriage or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to settle in Italy . Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and Cardinal Bessarion . The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups The of desperate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks, Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on its summit with the head of a warrior in its talons .

The dying Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty

tomb that he may stand therein and load his .musket: " Make a window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by his horse: " Rise, my master, let us go and find our comrades." " My bay horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein . Bear my arms to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast . In many of the former the influence of the Frankish conquest is apparent . Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be found in the popular songs . Death is commonly personified by Charon, who struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he triumphs in the conflict . In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences . The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian words . The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was Erotocritos, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of Arete, daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son of his minister . The poem presents an interesting picture of Greece under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing to describe an episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and contains some charming scenes . The metre is the rhymed alexandrine . Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who lived in the middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he probably belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso was descended . The second poem is the Erophile of George Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect .

It is a tragic drama, the

scene of which is laid in Egypt . The dialogue is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand . Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries . The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the Shepherdess, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century . Other Cretan poets were J . Gregoropoulos and G . Melissinos (1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric odes . Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a know-ledge of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, Con- stantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a Literary acttvlty Cretan . These men wrote in the accepted literary after the language; in general, however, they were rather fail of employed about literature than engaged in producing Constanit . They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek troop/e. grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected manuscripts . Their stores enriched the newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris . But none of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called .

The question which most deeply interested them was that of the

rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the close of the 15th century . The dispute was in reality theological rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived . The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the capture of K e po etry. try. maintained. the struggle against alien tyranny . The po adventurous and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous . The Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine Greek poetry of this epoch . They breathe the aroma of the forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or mother . Olympia boasts to Cretan poets . Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and ex- of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy . Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography and physics . Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the Aeneid and Georgics of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II . His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries . The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his fellow- countrymen; Christopoulos (1772—r847), a Phanariote, pfhe Qreoets of ek who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos revival .

Rizos Neroulos (1778—1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature . They are followed in the epoch of Greek

independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander Soutzos (1800—1868 and 1803—1863) and Alexander Rhizos Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810—1892), all three Phanariotes . Both Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty . Both imitated to some extent Byron, Lamartine and Beranger; they tried various forms of poetry, but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of Alexander satirical . The other great poet of the Greek revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and sentiment . Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on ancient art and archaeology . Among the numerous dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the Mapia AoEt rarpi of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades . In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by an abundant output . Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose History of the prose Revolution is a monumental work . It is distinguished writers by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an o al. impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a leading part in the events which he narrates . Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his recollections . John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes .

He was an ardent

partisan of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was attached to the English party . K . Paparrhegopoulos's History of the Greek Nation is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and Grote . With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N . Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed the revolution; K . Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and history . In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in the 17th century as a great preacher . Kontogones is well known by his History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries and his Ecclesiastical History, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of Clemens Romanus . Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature . Great literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathematics, the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom . But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a large extent shaped the future course corals. of Greek literature was Adamantios Coraes (Korais) of Chios . This remarkable man, who devoted his life to philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical communicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among the Platonists .

On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his

post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope Paul I . Scholarship was not wholly extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the Turkish conquest . Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs . Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations; Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness . Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote verses on the return of that monarch to England . About the time of the fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers who wrote poems in the spoken dialect on historical subjects; among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas Limenitis (1450—1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 16th century); their poems have little merit, but are interesting as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks . Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number of chroniclers . At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, Historical who had been private secretary of Mahommed II., works. wrote the history of his master, Emmanuel Melaxos a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history of the Palaeologi . Theodosius Zygomalas (r58o) wrote a history of Constantinople from 1391 to 1578 . In the 17th century Demetrius Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a history of the Ottoman empire, and G . Kontares tales of ancient Athens . Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete, narratives of travels and biographies of saints .

Most of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere . Various theological and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but elegant literature practically disappears.' A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece . The efforts of the great Phanariote families The at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher literary i Greek

clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among a people always eager for instruction . The Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement . Schools were established in every important Greek town, and school-books and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest, Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies . Young men completed their studies in the Western universities and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization . For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly theological . Notable theological writers of this epoch were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular language, and Meletios of Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the work of Pausanias, after a series of tours . The works of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731 ?—1800) and Eugenios Bulgares (1715—1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary renaissance . They wrote much in defence ' The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople, from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning the faith of Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed . writers, written in Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf . The great importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that he was practically the founder of the modern literary language .

In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern language

present themselves—the vernacular (r) The KaBoµtXov . P i) and the purified (i- KaOapevovua). modern The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole literary Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the language. latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers, modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular speech . At the time of the War of Independence the enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns and districts received their former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints . In the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools of writers made their appearance—the purists, who, rejecting the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or " Romaic " as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient tongue . A controversy which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national literature . The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language. which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to interpret . The vernacular ororal language is never taught, but is univers- ally spoken . It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and regular process, similar to that which Reforms has produced the Romance languages from the Latin, of Coraes or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the . old Slavonic . It has developed on parallel lines with the modern European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what Dante and his successors of the trecento did for Italian . But the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful . In the first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction .

The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to adopt its forms and

borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom . In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been formed which cannot easily be broken down . For more than half a century the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the university, the parliament, the state departments and the pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated classes is already noticeable . It largely owes its present form—though a fixed standard is still lacking—to the influence and teaching of Coraes . As in the time of the decadence a Kolvii S1aXeKros stood midway between the classical language and the popular speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition . This written language Coraes took as the basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a fixed principle . He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popularspeech all the material for a langue savante . The language which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial . In course of time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter will gradually be modified by the spread of education . The spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide interval . Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the feelings . Dionysios Solomos (1798– poetical 1857), the greatest of them all, employed the dialect writers of the Ionian Islands .

Of his lyrics, which are full of in the poetic

fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his verna-" Ode to Liberty." Other poets, of what may be cular. described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796–1869), Julius Typaldos (1814–1883), John Zampelios (1787–1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b . 1826), followed his example in using the Heptanesian dialect . On the other hand, Georgios Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824–1879) and Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads—in other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the mountainous district of Epirus . This dialect had at least the advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the champions of Greek liberty . The poems of Valaorites, which are characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made a deep impression on the nation . Other poets who largely employed the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771–1823), George Zalokostas (1805–1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d . 1893) . With the poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b . 1835) . The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios (b . 1850), George Bizyenos (1853–1896), George Drosines, Kostes Palamas (b . 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and Jacob Polylas (d .

1896) . Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which gathered at Athens pbeticai after the emancipation of Greece . The literary in the traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes maven-(r 810–1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis tonal Soutzos (1803–1863 and 1800–1868), who belonged language. to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion Basiliades (1843–1874) Angelos Vlachos (b . 1838), John Karasoutzas (1824–1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843–1873), and

Achilles Paraschos (b . 1838) . The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed the popular language . In general the practice of versification in the conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens . Greek lyric poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models . There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in recent years . In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos Vlachos, Drama-Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes trans . 'are the most prominent among modern dramatic iators and writers . Numerous translations of foreign master- satirists. pieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Hamlet, Macbeth and The Merchant of Venice, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples of artistic excellence .

Goethe's Faust has been rendered into verse by Probelegios, and Hamlet, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Julius Caesar, into prose by Damiroles . Among recent satirists, George Soures (b . 1853) occupies a unique position . He reviews social and political events in the'PwpT7os, a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of the population . Almost' all the prose writers have employed the literary language . In historical research the Greeks continue to display much activity and erudition, but no great work Recent comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's History of the prose writers . Revolution has appeared in the present generation . A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published . The valuable Mvr11.Leia of Sathas, the 7a,eMraL Bvi'avruvi7s LOropias of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's History of the Ionian Islands deserve special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history . Some of the last-named were translated into English by the late marquis of Bute . Among the writers on jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos . Brailas-Armenes and John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have written philosophical works .

The Ecclesiastical History of

Diomedes Kyriakos and the Theological Treatises of Archbishop Latas should be noted . The best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a recognized position among scholars . John Svoronos is a high authority on numismatics . The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast . Christomanos on chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known . The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign Fiction . influence . Modern Greece has not produced any great novelist . The Kp17rLKOi yaµoL of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the Thanos Blechas of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the mountains of Greece . Original novel writing has not been much cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound . In later times the short story has come into vogue through the example of D . Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, Loukis Laras, has been translated into many languages .

The example of Bikelas has been followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many others . The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in prose is John Psichari,

professor of the Ecole des Sautes Etudes in Paris . He is the recognized leader of the vulgarists . Among the best known of his works are To raEel6i acv, a narrative of a journey in Greek lands, Tovapo Toil Fiavvipr7, 'H ZoOXea, and o Miyos . The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in the vernacular . Among the younger of M . Psichari's followers is M . Palli, who has recently published a translation of the Iliad . Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects . The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from the ancient language . Notwithstanding the'zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless its advocates succeed .'n reforming the system of public instruction in Greece . Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned the Athena, edited by Constantine Kontos, the Ethnike Agoge, a continuation of the old Hestia, the Harmonia and the ALar1avis rmv rat&wv, an educational review .

The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and otherlearned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports . The Greek

journals are both numerous and widely read . They contain much clever writing, which is often marred by inac- curacy and a deficient sense of responsibility . Their tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes Journa/s . /ca/s and borders on the ludicrous . For many years the Nea Hemera of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios Byzantios (d . 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and judgment . AuTHoRITIEs.—Constantine Sathas,NeoeXanvuat ckaoaoyla (Athens, 1868) ; D . Bikelas, Hepi veoe X vi,d c (I)LAoXoylar &laptop(London, 1871), reprinted in ALaMtees Kal avagvngeie(Athens, 1893) ; J . S . Blackie, Horae Hellenicae (London, 1874) ; R . Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1876) ; A .

R . Rhangabe, Histoire litteraire de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1877) ; C . Gidel, Etudes sur la litterature grecque moderne (Paris, 1878) ; E . Legrand, Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire (vol. i., Paris, 188o) ; J . Lamber, Poetes grecs contemporains (Paris, 1881) ; Kontos, PXwooLKai sraparfprtgecs (Athens, 1882); Rhangabe and

Sanders, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von ihren Anfangen bis auf die neueste Zeit (Leipzig,1885); J . Psichari, Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and 1889) ; Etudes de philologie neo-grecque (Paris, 1892); F . Blass, Die Aussprache des Griechischen (3rd ed., Berlin, 1888); Papademetrakopoulos, Baoavos ETX vLK;tr 7rpo4opas (Athens . 1889) ; M . Konstantinides, Neo-hellenica (Dialogues in Modern Greek, with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect) (London, 1892); Rhoades, Ta EihwXa . P?wogucr} µeXerg (Athens, 1893) ; Polites, MEXcrai TEpl Tor, Xov Kal rats yawgoi 'EXXrtvLKO"v aaou (2 vols., Athens, 1899) . For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C . Fauriel, Chants populaires de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1824, 1826) ; Passow, Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris (Leipzig, 186o) ; von Hahn, Griechische and albanesische Marchen (Leipzig, 1864) ; Te¢aplKris, ALavorpayovSa (2nd ed., Athens, 1868) ; E .

Legrand, Recueil de chansons populaires grecques (Paris, 1874) ; Recueil de conies populaires grecs (Paris, 1881); Paul de

Lagarde, Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien (Gottingen, 1886) ; A . Jannaris, "Ao,aara Kpgruca . (Kreta's Volkslieder) (Leipzig, 1876) ; A . Sakellariou, Ta Kvirpcaxa (Athens, 1891) ; Zwypack2os 'Ayeov, published by the 'EXTx;vixOr giXoXoyucbs abXXoyos (Constantinople, 1891) . Translations: L . Garnett, Greek Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece (London, 1885) ; E . M . Geldart, Folklore of Modern Greece (London, 1884) . Lexicons: A . N . Jannaris, A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages (English-Greek) (London, 1895) ; Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), AeELKOv T'7)5 'EXXI/vt,d 7Xwoo11s (Athens, 1895); A . Sakellario, Ae iaav ri g'EXknvLK75s yXc rcr s (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S .

Koumanoudes, Euvaywyr} v&ev X Zewv (Athens, 1900) . Grammars: Mitsotakes, Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- and Umgangssprache (

Stuttgart, 1891); M . Gardner, A Practical Modern Greek Grammar (London, 1892); G . N . Hatzidakes, Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892); E . Vincent and T . G . Dickson, Handbook to Modern Greek (London, 1893) ; A . Thumb, Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache (Strassburg, 1895); C . Wied, Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch Selbstunterricht schnell and leicht zu lernen (2nd ed., undated, Vienna) ; A . N . Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar (London, 1897) .

(J . D .