ANIMAL  . FA T S Name of See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

Fat . Source . Yield per cent . See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

Iodine Value . See also:

• PRINCIPAL

Principal Use . Drying Fats . See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

Ice See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear Ursus maritimus 147 See also:

• PHARMACY

Pharmacy See also:

• RATTLESNAKE

Rattlesnake Crotalus durissus 106 Pharmacy Semi-drying Fats . Horses' fat . . ~ Equus cabatlus 75-85 See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

Food, See also:

• SOAP

soap Non-drying Fats . See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

Goose fat . Anser cinereus .

70 Food, pomades See also:

• LARD (Fr. lard, from Lat. laridum, bacon fat, related to Gr. Naptvos fat, Napos dainty or sweet)

Lard See also:

• SUS

Sus scrofa 50-70 Food, soap, candles See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

Beef marrow See also:

• BOS, LAMBERT (1670—1717)

Bos See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

taurus 55 Pomades See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

Bone . . Bos, Ovis . 46-56 Soap, candles See also:

• TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

Tallow, beef . Bos taurus 38-46 Food, soap, candles, See also:

• LUBRICANTS

lubricants Tallow, mutton Ovis See also:

• ARIES (" The Ram ")

aries 35-46 Food, soap, candles, lubricants See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

Butter . Bos taurus 26-38 Food in See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair or woollen bags and submitted to See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic pressure, by which a further portion of oil or fat is obtained (cf . Pressing, below) . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of those animal fats which are intended for edible purposes, such as lard, See also:

• SUET (M. Eng. sewet, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod. suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sebum, tallow, grease, probably allied to sago, soap)

suet for See also:

• MARGARINE

margarine, the greatest cleanliness must, of course, be observed, and the temperature must be kept as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as possible in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to obtain a perfectly sweet and pure material . Pressing.—The boiling out See also:

• PROCESS

process cannot be applied to small seeds, such as See also:

• LINSEED

linseed and See also:

• RAPE
• RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize)
• RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip)

rape See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed . Whilst the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original method of obtaining seed See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils may perhaps have been the same which is still used in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, viz. trituration of (rape) seeds in a See also:

• MORTAR

mortar so that the oil can exude, it may be safely assumed that the process of expressing has been applied in the first instance to the preparation of See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive oil .. The first woman who expressed See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives packed in a See also:

• SACK

sack by heaping stones on them may be considered as the forerunner of the inventors of all the presses that subsequently came into use . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny describes in detail the apparatus and processes for obtaining olive oil in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue among his See also:

• ROMAN

Roman contemporaries, who used already a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press, a knowledge of which they had derived from the Greeks . In the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, where See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable oils See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of food and serve also for other domestic purposes, various ingenious applications of See also:

• LEVER (through O. Fr. leveour, levere, mod. levier, from Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872)

lever presses and See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge presses, and even of combined lever and wedge presses, have been used from the remotest See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time .

At an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of See also:

• HISTORY

history the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese employed the same See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of operations which are followed in the most advanced oil See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills of See also:

• MODERN

modern time, viz. bruising and reducing the seeds to See also:

• MEAL

meal under an edge-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, See also:

• HEATING

heating the meal in an open See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan, and pressing out the oil in a wedge press in which the wedges were driven See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home by hammers . This See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive process is still being carried out in See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria, in the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of soja See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean cake and soja bean oil, one of the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries of that See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The olive press, which was also used in the vineyards for expressing the See also:

• GRAPE

grape juice, found its way from the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, and was employed there for expressing See also:

• POPPY

poppy seed and rape seed . The apparatus was then gradually improved, and thus were evolved the modern forms of the screw press, next the Dutch or stamper press, and finally the hydraulic press . With the screw press, even in its most improved form, the amount of pressure practically obtainable is limited from the failure of its parts under the severe inelastic See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain . Hence this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of press finds only limited application, as in the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of olive oil for expressing the best and finest virgin oil, and in the production of animal fats for edible purposes, such as lard and oleomargarine . The Dutch or stamper press, invented in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland in the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, was up to the early years of the 19th century' almost exclusively employed in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe for pressing oil-seeds . It consists of two principal parts, an oblong rectangular See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box with an arrangement of plates,. blocks and wedges, and over it a framework with heavy stampers which produce the pressure by their fall . The press box first consisted of strongly See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound oaken planks, but later on See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron boxes were introduced . At each extremity of the box a bag of oil-meal was placed between two perforated Iron plates, next to which were inserted filling-up pieces of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, two of which were oblique, so that the wedges which exercised the pressure could be readily driven home . This press has had to yield See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to the hydraulic press, although in some old-fashioned establishments in Holland the stamper press could still be seen at See also:

• WORK

work in the 'eighties of the 19th century . The invention of the hydraulic press in 1795 by See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• BRAMAH, JOSEPH (1748-1814)

Bramah (Eng. pat., 3oth See also:

• APRIL

April 1795) effected the greatest revolution in the oil industry, bringing a new, easily controlled and almost unlimited source of See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power into See also:

• PLAY

play; the limit of the power being solely reached by the limit of the strength of the material which the engineer is able to produce .

Since then the hydraulic press has practically completely superseded all other appliances-used for expression, and in consequence of this See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making invention, assisted as it was later on by the See also:

• ACCUMULATOR

accumulator—invented by See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George (later See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord) See also:

• ARMSTRONG, ARCHIBALD (d. 1672)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1709-1779)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1758—1843)
• ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN (1839—1893)
• ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE ARMSTRONG, BARON (1810—1900)

Armstrong in 1843—the seed-crushing industry reached a perfection of See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical detail which soon secured its supremacy for See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . The sequence of operations in treating oil seeds, oil nuts, &c., for the separation of their contained oils is at the See also:

• PRESENT

present time as follows: As a preliminary operation the oil seeds and nuts are freed from dust, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand and other impurities by sifting in an inclined revolving See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder or sieving See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine, covered with See also:

• WOVEN

woven See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire;. having meshes varying according to the See also:

• SIZE

size and nature of the seed operated upon . This preliminary See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification is of the greatest importance, especially for the preparation of edible oils and fats . In the case of those seeds amongst which are found pieces of iron (See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer heads amongst See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm kernels, &c.), the seeds are passed over magnetic separators, which retain the pieces of iron . The seeds and nuts are then decorticated (where required), the shells removed,. and the kernels (" meats ") converted into a pulpy See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass or meal (in older establishments by crushing and grinding between stones in. edge-runners) on passing through a hopper over rollers consisting of five chilled iron or See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel cylinders mounted vertically like the See also:

• BOWLS

bowls of a See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar . These rollers are finely grooved so that the seed is cut up whilst passing in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession between the first and second rollers in the series, then between the second and the third, and so on to the last, when the grains are sufficiently bruised, crushed and ground . The distance between the rollers can be easily regulated so that the seed leaving the bottom See also:

• ROLLER

roller has the desired fineness . The comminuted mass, forming a more or less coarse meal, is either expressed in this See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state or subjected to a preliminary heating, according to the quality of the product to be manufactured . For the preparation of edible oils and fats the meal is expressed in the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, after having been packed into bags and placed in hydraulic presses under a pressure of three See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred atmospheres or even more . The cakes are allowed to remain under pressure for about seven minutes . The oil exuding in the cold dissolves the smallest amount of colouring See also:

• MATTER

matter, &c., and hence has suffered least in its quality . Oils so obtained are known in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce as " cold See also:

• DRAWN

drawn oils," " cold pressed oils," " See also:

• SALAD (Med. Lat. salata, salted, pickled, salare, to sprinkle with salt)

salad oils," " virgin oils." By pressing in the cold, obviously only See also:

• PART

part of the oil or fat is recovered .

A further quantity is obtained by expressing the seed meal at a somewhat elevated temperature, reached by warming the comminuted seeds or fruits either immediately after they leave the five-roller See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill, or after the " cold drawn oil " has been taken off . Of course the cold pressed cakes must be first disintegrated, which may be done under an edge-runner . The same operation may be repeated once more . Thus oils of the " second expression " and of the " third expression " are obtained . In the case of oleaginous seeds of low value (See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-seed, linseed) it is of importance to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express in one operation the largest possible quantity of oil . Hence the bruised seed is, after leaving the five-roller mill, generally warmed at once in a See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-jacketed See also:

• KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894)

kettle fitted with a mixing See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear, by passing steam into the jacket, and sending at the same time some steam through a See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, fixed inside the kettle, into the mass while it is being agitated . This practice is a survival of the older method of moistening the seed with a little See also:

• WATER

water, while the seeds were bruised under edge-runners, so as to See also:

• LOWER

lower the temperature and facilitate the bursting of the cells . The warm meal is then delivered through measuring boxes into closed pressbags (" scourtins " of the " See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles " press), or through measuring boxes, combined with an automatic moulding machine, into cloths open at two sides (Anglo-See also:

• AMERICAN

American press), so that the preliminarily pressed cakes can be put at once into the hydraulic press . In the latest constructions of' cage presses, the use of bags is entirely dispensed with, a measured-out quantity of seed falling See also:

• DIRECT

direct into the circular press cage and being separated from the material forming the next cake by a circular See also:

• PLATE

plate of See also:

• SHEET

sheet iron . The essentials of proper oil pressing are a slowly accumulating pressure, so that the liberated oil may have time to flow out and See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, a pressure that increases in proportion as the resistance of the material increases, and that maintains itself as the See also:

• VOLUME

volume of material decreases through the escape of oil . Numerous forms of hydraulic presses have been devised . See also:

• HORIZONTAL

Horizontal presses have practically ceased to be used in this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of industry .

At present See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical presses are almost exclusively in vogue; the three See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief types of these have been already mentioned . Continuously working presses (See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression by a conical screw) have been patented, but hitherto they have not been found practicable . Of the vertical presses the Anglo-American type of press is most in use . It represents an open press fitted with a number (usually sixteen) of iron press plates, between which the cakes are inserted by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . A hydraulic See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram then forces the table carrying the cakes against a press-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, and the exuding oil flows down the sides into a tank below . The " Marseilles press" is largely used in the south of France . There the meal is packed by hand in " scourtins," bags made of plaited coco-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut leaves—replacing the woollen cloths used in England . The packing of the press requires more See also:

• MANUAL

manual labour than in the case of the Anglo-American press; moreover, the Marseilles press offers inconvenience in keeping the bags straight, and the pressure cannot he raised to the same height as in the more modern hydraulic presses . Oil obtained from heated meal is usually more highly coloured and harsher to the See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste than cold drawn oil, more of the extractive substances being dissolved and intermixed with the oil . Such oils are hardly suitable for edible purposes, and they are chiefly used for manufacturing processes . According to the care exercised by the manufacturer in the range of temperature to which the seed is heated, various grades of oils are obtained . In the case of those seeds which contain more than 4o% of oil, such as arachis nuts and See also:

• SESAME

sesame seed, the first expression in pressbags leads to difficulty, as the meal causes " spueing," i.e. the meal exudes and escapes from the press .

Hence, in modern installations, the first expression of those seeds is carried out in so-called cage (clodding) presses, consisting of hydraulic presses provided with circular boxes or cages, into which the meal is filled . These cages or boxes are either constructed of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal staves held together by a number of steel rings, or consist of one cylinder having a large number of perforations . The presses having perforated cylinders, although presenting mechanically a more perfect arrangement, are not preferable to the press cages formed by staves, as the holes become easily clogged up by the meal, when the cylinder must be carefully cleaned out . Modern improvements, with a view to cheapening of cost, effect the transport of the cages from one press See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

battery to another on rails . In order to dispense even with the charging of the presses by hand, in some systems the cages are first charged in a preliminary press,from which they are transferred mechanically by a swinging arrangement into the final press . Whilst the meal is under pressure the oil See also:

• WORKS

works its way to the edge of the cake, whence it exudes . For this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason an oblong form is the most favourable one for the easy separation of the oil . The edges of the cakes invariably retain a considerable portion of oil; hence the soft edges are pared off, in the case of the oblong cake in a cake-paring machine, and the parings are returned to edge-runners, to be ground up and again pressed with fresh meal . Through the introduction of the cage (clodding) presses circular cakes have become fashionable, and as the material of these presses can be made much stronger and therefore higher pressure can be employed, more oil is expressed from the meal than in open presses . The oil flowing from the presses is caught in reservoirs placed under the level of the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor, from which it is pumped into storage tanks for settling and clarifying . Extraction by Solvents.—The cakes obtained in the foregoing process still retain considerable proportions of oil, not less than 4 to 5 %usually, however, about to % . If it be desired to obtain larger quantities than are yielded by the above-described methods, processes having for their See also:

• OBJECT

object the extraction of the seeds by volatile solvents must be resorted to .

Extraction by means or See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon bisulphide was first introduced in 1843 by See also:

• JESSE
• JESSE, EDWARD (178o–1868)
• JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874)

Jesse See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

Fisher of See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham . Thirteen years later E . Deiss of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick again patented the extraction by means of carbon bisulphide (Eng . Pat . No . 390, 1856), and added " See also:

• CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHC13

chloroform, See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether, essences, or benzine or benzole" to the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of solvents . For several years afterwards the process made little advance, for the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of the oils produced was higher and the taste much sharper . The oil retained traces of See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur, which showed themselves disagreeably in the See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell of soaps made from it, and in the blackening of substances with which it was used . Of course, the meal See also:

• LEFT

left by the process was so tainted with carbon bisuiphide that it was absolutely out of the question to use the extracted meal as See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle food . With the improvement in the manufacture of carbon bisulphide, these drawbacks have been surmounted to a large extent, and the process of extracting with carbon bisuiphide has specially gained much See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension in the extraction of expressed olive See also:

• MARE

mare in the south of France, in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain . Yet even now traces of carbon bisulphide are retained by the extracted meal, so that it is impossible to feed cattle with it . Carbon bisuiphide is comparatively cheap, and it is heavier than water, hence there are certain advantages in storing so volatile and inflammable a liquid .

But owing to the physiological effect carbon bisuiphide has on the workmen, coupled. with the chemical See also:

• ACTION

action of impure carbon bisuiphide on iron which has frequently led to conflagrations, the employment of carbon bisulphide must remain restricted . In 1863 See also:

• RICHARDSON, GEORGE
• RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886)
• RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761)
• RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865)

Richardson, See also:

• LUNDY
• LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839)
• LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1688)

Lundy and See also:

• IRVINE

Irvine secured a patent (Eng . Pat . No . 2315) for obtaining oil from crushed seeds, or from refuse cake, by the solvent action of volatile See also:

• HYDROCARBONS

hydrocarbons from " See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum, See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth oils, asphaltum oil, See also:

• COAL

coal oil or shale oil, such hydrocarbons being required to be volatile under 2120 F." Since that time the development of the petroleum industry in all parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world and the large quantities of low boiling-point hydrocarbons—See also:

• NAPHTHA

naphtha —obtained from the petroleum See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, and also the improvements in the apparatus employed, have raised this See also:

• SYSTEM

system of extraction to the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a competing See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical method of oil production . Of the other proposed volatile solvents See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary ether has found no practical application, as it is far too volatile and hence far too dangerous . Carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, See also:

• ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE

acetone and See also:

• BENZENE, C6H6

benzene are far too expensive . Carbon tetrachloride would be an ideal solvent, as it is non-inflammable and shares with carbon bisulphide the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of being heavier than water . Efforts have been made during the last few years to introduce this solvent on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, but its high See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price and its physiological effect on the workmen have hitherto militated against it . At the present time the choice lies practically only between the two solvents, carbon bisuiphide and naphtha (petroleum ether) . Naphtha is preferable for oil seeds, as it extracts neither resins nor gummy matters from the oil seeds, and takes up less colouring matter than carbon bisulphide . Yet even with naphtha traces of the solvents remain, so that the.tneal obtained cannot be used for cattle feeding, notwithstanding the many statements by interested parties to the contrary .

It is true that on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent extracted meal, especially rape meal from See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• INDIAN

Indian seed and palm See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel meal, are somewhat largely used as food for cattle in admixture with press cakes, but in England no extracted meal is used for feeding cattle, but finds its proper use in manuring the See also:

• LAND

land . The apparatus employed on a large scale depends on the temperature at which the extraction is carried out . In the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main two types of extracting apparatus are differentiated, viz. for extraction in the cold and for extraction in the hot . The seed is prepared in a similar manner as for pressing, except that it is not reduced to a See also:

• FINE

fine meal, so as not to impede the percolation of the solvent through the mass . In the case of cold extraction the seed is placed in a series of closed vessels, through which the solvent percolates by displacement, on the " See also:

• COUNTER

counter-current " system . A battery of vessels is so arranged that one See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel can always be made the last of the series to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge finished meal and to be recharged with fresh meal, so that the process is practically a continuous one . The See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the extracted oil or fat is then transferred to a steam-heated still, where the solvent is driven off and recovered by condensing the vapours in a cooling coil, to be used again . The last remnant of volatile solvent in the oil is driven off by a current of open steam blown through the oil in the warm state . The extracting process in the hot is carried out in apparatus, the principle of which is exemplified by the well-known Soxhlet extractor . The comminuted seed is placed inside a vessel connected with an upright refrigerator on trays or baskets, and is surrounded there by the volatile solvent . On heating the solvent with steam through a coil or jacket, the vapours rise through and around the meal . They pass into the refrigerator, where they are condensed and fall back as a condensed liquid through the meal, percolating it as they pass downwards, and reaching to the bottom of the vessel as a more or less saturated solution of oil in the solvent .

The solvent is again evaporated, leaving the oil at the bottom of the vessel until the extraction is deemed finished . The solution of fat is then run off into a still, as described already, and the last traces of solvent are driven out . The solvent is recovered and used again . With regard to the merits and demerits of the last two mentioned processes--expression and extraction—the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of either will largely depend on See also:

• LOCAL

local conditions and the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects for which the See also:

• PRO

pro-ducts are intended . Wherever the cake is the main product, expression will commend itself as the most advantageous process . Where, however, the fatty material forms the main product, as in the case of palm kernel oil, or sesame and coco-nut oils from damaged seeds (which would no longer yieid proper cattle food), the process of extraction will be preferred, especially when the price of oils is high . In some cases the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of the two processes commends itself, as in the case of the production of olive oil . The fruits are expressed, and after the edible qualities and best class of oils for technical purposes have been taken off by expression, the remaining pulp is extracted by means of solvents . This process is known under the name of mixed process (huilerie mixte) . Refining and See also:

• BLEACHING

Bleaching . The oils and fats prepared by any of the methods detailed above are in their fresh state, and, if got from perfectly fresh (" sweet ") material, practically neutral . If care be exercised in the process of rendering animal oils and fats or expressing oils in the cold, the products are, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, sufficiently pure to be delivered to the consumer, after a preliminary settling has allowed any mucilaginous matter, such as animal or vegetable See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres or other impurities, and also traces of moisture, to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate out .

This spontaneous clarification was at one time the only method in vogue . This process is now shortened by filtering oils through See also:

• FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. fi-ltrum, felt, a material used as a filtering agent)

filter presses, or otherwise brightening them, e.g. by blowing with See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . In many cases these methods still suffice for the production of commercial oils and fats . In See also:

• SPECIAL

special cases, such as the preparation of edible oils and fats, a further improvement in colour and greater purity is obtained by filtering the oils over See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal, or over natural absorbent earths, such as See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller's earth . Where this process does not suffice, as in the case of coco-nut oil or palm kernel oil, a preliminary purification in a current of steam must be resorted to before the final purification, described above, is carried out . Oils intended for use on the table which See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit " stearine " in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter must be freed from such solid fats . This is done by allowing the oil to cool down to a low temperature and pressing it through cloths in a press, when a limpid oil exudes, which remains See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof against cold—" winter oil." Most olive oils are naturally non-congealing oils, whereas the Tunisian and Algerian olive oils deposit so much " stearine " that they must be " demargarina.ted." Similar methods are employed in the production of lard oil, edible cotton-seed oil, &c . For refining oils and fats intended for edible purposes only the foregoing methods, which may be summarized by the name of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical methods, can be used; the only chemicals permissible are alkalis or alkaline earths to remove See also:

• FREE

free fatty acids present . Treatment with other chemicals renders the oils and fats unfit for See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption . Therefore all bleaching and refining processes involving other means than those enumerated can only be used for technical oils and fats, such .as lubricating oils, burning oils, paint oils, soap-making oils, &c . Bleaching by the aid of chemicals requires See also:

• GREAT

great circumspection . There is no universal method of oil-refining applicable to any and every oil or fat .

Not only must each kind of oil or fat be considered as a special problem, but frequently even varieties of one and the same oil or fat are See also:

• APT

apt to cause the same difficulties as would a new individual . In many cases the purification by means of sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid, invented and patentedby See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• GOWER
• GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408)

Gower in 1792 (frequently ascribed to See also:

• THENARD, LOUIS JACQUES (1777-1857)

Thenard), is still usefully applied . It consists in treating the oil with a small percentage of a more or less concentrated sulphuric acid, according to the nature of the oil or fat . The acid not only takes up water, but it acts on the suspended impurities, carbonizing them to some extent, and thus causing them to coagulate and fall down in the form of a flocculent mass, which carries with it mechanically other impurities which have not been acted upon . This method is chiefly used in the refining of linseed and rape oils . Purification by means of strong See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic soda was first recommended as a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general process by See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis C . See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur Barreswil, his See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion being to See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat the oil and add 2% to 3% of caustic soda . In most cases the purification consisted in removing the free fatty acids from rancid oils and fats, the caustic soda forming a soap with the fatty acids, which would either rise as a scum and lift up with it impurities, or fall to the bottom and carry down impurities . This process is a useful one in the case of cotton-seed oil . As a rule, however, it is a very See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious one, since emulsions are formed which prevent in many cases the separation of oil altogether . After the treatment with sulphuric acid or caustic soda, the oils must be washed to remove the last traces of chemicals . The water is then allowed to .See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle out, and the oils are finally filtered .

The number of chemicals which have been proposed from time to time for the purification of oils and fats is almost See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion, and so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as the nature of oils and fats was little understood, a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in oil-purifying chemicals flourished . With our present knowledge most of these chemicals may be removed into the limbo of useless things . The general methods of bleaching besides those mentioned already as physical methods, viz. filtration over charcoal or bleaching earth, are chiefly methods based on bleaching by means of See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen or by See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine . The methods of bleaching by oxygen include all those which aim at the bleaching by exposure to the air and to sunlight (as in the case of artists' linseed-oil), or where oxygen or See also:

• OZONE

ozone is introduced in the form of See also:

• GAS

gas or is evolved by chemicals, as See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese dioxide, See also:

• POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39.114 0=16)]

potassium bichromate or potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid . In the process of bleaching by means of chlorine either bleaching See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder or bichromates and hydrochloric acid are used . It must again be emphasized that no general rule can be laid down as to which process should be employed in each given case . There is still a wide See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field open for the application of proper processes for the removal of impurities and colouring matters without See also:

• RUNNING

running the See also:

• RISK

risk of attacking the oil or fat itself . Oil Testing.—Reliable scientific methods for testing oils and fats date back only to the end of the 'seventies of the 19th century . Before that time it was believed that not only could individual oils and fats be distinguished from each other by colour reactions, but it was also maintained that falsification could be detected thereby . With one or two exceptions (detection of sesame oil and perhaps also of cotton-seed oil) all colour reactions are entirely useless . The modern methods of oil testing See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest chiefly on so-called " quantitative " reactions, a number of characteristic " values " being determined which, being based on the special nature of the fatty acids contained in each individual oil or fat, assist in identifying them and also in revealing See also:

• ADULTERATION
• ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify)

adulteration . These " values," together with other useful methods, are enumerated in the order of their utility for the purposes of testing .

The saponification value (saponification number) denotes the number of milligrams which one gramme of an oil or fat requires for saponification, or, in other words, for the neutralization of the See also:

• TOTAL

total fatty acids contained in an oil or fat . We thus measure the See also:

• ALKALI

alkali absorption value of all fatty acids contained in an oil or fat . The saponification values of most oils and fats See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in the neighbourhood of 195 . But the oils belonging to the rape oil See also:

• GROUP

group are characterized by considerably lower saponification values, viz. about 175 on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their containing notable quantities of erucic acid, CnH.t,O2 . In the case of those oils which do not belong to the rape oils and yet show abnormally low saponification values, the suspicion is raised at once that a certain amount of See also:

• MINERAL

mineral oils (which do not absorb alkali and are therefore termed " unsaponifiable ") has been admixed fraudulently . Their amount can be determined in a direct manner by exhausting the saponified mass, after dilution with water, with ether, evaporating the latter and weighing the amount of mineral oil left behind . A few of the blubber oils, like See also:

• DOLPHIN

dolphin See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw and See also:

• PORPOISE (sometimes spelled Porpus and Porpesse)

porpoise jaw oils (used for lubricating typewriting See also:

• MACHINES

machines), have exceedingly high saponification values owing to their containing volatile fatty acids with a small number of carbon atoms . Notable also are coco-nut and palm-nut oils, the saponification See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of which vary from 240 to 260, and especially butter-fat, which has a saponification value of about 227 . These high saponification values are due to the presence of (glycerides of) volatile fatty acids, and are of extreme usefulness to the See also:

• ANALYST

analyst, especially in testing butter-fat for added margarine and other fats . These volatile acids are specially measured by the Reichert value (Reichert-Wollny value) . To ascertain this value the volatile acids contained in 5 grammes of an oil or fat are distilled in a minutely prescribed manner, and the distilled-off acids are measured by titration with decinormal alkali . Whereas most of the oils and fats, viz. all those the saponification value of which lies at or below 195, contain practically no volatile acids,i.e. have extremely low Reichert-Wollny values, all those oils and fats haying saponification'values above 195 contain notable amounts of volatile fatty acids .

Thus, the Reichert-Meissl value of butter-fat is 25-30, that of coco-nut oil 6-7, and of palm kernel oil about 5-6 . This value is indispensable for judging the purity of a butter . One of the most important values in oil testing is the iodine value . This indicates the percentage of iodine absorbed by an oil or fat when the latter is dissolved in chloroform or carbon tetrachloride, and treated with an accurately measured amount of free iodine supplied in the form of iodine chloride . By this means a measure is obtained of the unsaturated fatty acids contained in an oil or fat . On this value a scientific See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of all oils and fats can be based, as is shown by the above-given list of oils and fats . The unsaturated fatty acids which occur chiefly in oils and fats are oleic acid, iodine value 90.07; erucic acid, iodine value 75.15; linolic acid, iodine value 181.42; linolenic acid, iodine value 274.1; and clupanodonic acid, iodine value 367.7 . Oleic acid occurs in all non-drying oils and fats, and to some extent in the semi-drying oils and fats . Linolic acid is a characteristic constituent of all semi-drying, and to some extent of all drying oils . Linolenic acid characterizes all vegetable drying oils; similarly clupanodonic acid characterizes all marine animal oils . If one individual oil or fat is given, the iodine value alone furnishes the readiest means of finding its place in the above system, and in many cases of identifying it . Even if a mixture of several oils . and, fats be present, the iodine value assists greatly in the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the components of the mixture, and furnishes the most important See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key for the attacking and resolving of this not very simple problem .

Thus it points the way to the application of a further method to resolve the isolated fatty acids of an oil or fat into saturated fatty acids, which do not absorb iodine, and into unsaturated fatty acids, which absorb iodine in various proportions as shown above . This separation is effected by converting the alkali soaps of the fatty acids into See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead soaps and treating the latter with ether, in which the lead salts of the saturated acids are insoluble, whereas the salts of the above-named unsaturated acids are soluble . The saturated fatty acids can then be further examined, and valuable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information is gained by the determination of the melting-points and by treatment with solvents . Thus some individual fatty acids, such as stearic acid and arachidic acid (which is characteristic of ground nut oil) can be identified . In the mixture of unsaturated fatty acids, by means of some more refined methods, clupanodonic acid, linolenic acid, linolic acid and oleic acid can be recognized . By combining the various methods which have been outlined here, and by the help of some further additional special methods, and by reasoning in a strictly logical manner, it is possible tc resolve a mixture of two oils and fats, and even of three and four, into their components and determine approximately their quantities . The methods sketched here do not yet exhaust the armoury of the See also:

• ANALYTICAL

analytical chemist, but it can only be pointed out in passing that the detection of hydroxylated acids enables the analyst to ascertain the presence of See also:

• CASTOR

castor oil, just as the See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation and determination of oxidized fatty acids enables him to differentiate blown oils from other oils . Tests such as the Maumene test, the elaldin test and others, which formerly were the only resource of the chemist, have been practically superseded by the foregoing methods . The viscosity test, although of considerable importance in the examination of lubricating oils, has been shown to have very little discriminative value as a general test . Commerce.—It may be safely said of the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom that it takes the foremost position in the world as regards the extent of the oil and fat industries . An estimate made by the writer (Cantor Lectures, " Oils and Fats, their Uses and Applications," Society of Arts, 1go4, p . 795), and based on the most. reliable information obtainable, led to the conclusion that the sums involved in the oil and fat trade exceeded £1,000,000 perweek; in 1907 they approximated 1,25o,000 per See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week .

The great centres of the seed-oil trade (linseed, cotton-seed, rape-seed, castor-seed) are See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

Hull, See also:

• LONDON

London, See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool, See also:

• BRISTOL
• BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF