See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle See also:

• ENGLISH

English became differentiated in See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " See also:

• EMMET, ROBERT (1778-1803)
• EMMET, THOMAS ADDIS (1764-1827)

emmet," now only u  sed provincially, " See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

ant " being the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form) . The fact that the name of the ant has come down in See also:

• ENGLISH

English from athousand years ago shows that this class of See also:

• INSECTS

insects impressed the old inhabitants of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England as they impressed the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews and Greeks . The social instincts and industrious habits of ants have always made them favourite See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of study, and a vast amount of literature has accumulated on the subject of their structure and their modes of See also:

• LIFE

life . Characters.—An ant is easily recognized both by the casual observer and by the student of insects . Ants form a distinct and natural See also:

• FAMILY

family (Formicidae) of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order See also:

• HYMENOPTERA
• HYMENOPTERA (Gr. bµ$v, a membrane, and irrepov, a wing)

Hymenoptera, to which bees, wasps and sawflies also belong . The insects of this order have mandibles adapted for biting, and two pairs of membranous wings are usually See also:

• PRESENT

present; the first abdominal segment (propodeum) becomes closely associated with the fore-See also:

• BODY

body (See also:

• THORAX (Gr. BWpaE, breastplate, also the part of the body covered by it)

thorax), of which it appears to form a See also:

• PART

part . In all ants the second (apparently the first) abdominal segment is very markedly constricted at its front and See also:

• HIND

hind edges, so that it forms a " See also:

• NODE (Lat. nodus, a loop)

node " at the See also:

• BASE

base of the hind-body (fig . •1), and in many ants the third abdominal segment is similarly " nodular " in form (fig . 3, b,.c,) . It is this See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar " See also:

• WAIST

waist " that catches the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the observer, and makes the insects so easy of recognition . Another conspicuous and well-known feature of ants is the wingless See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the " workers," as the specialized See also:

• FEMALES

females, with undeveloped ovaries, which form the largest proportion of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of ant-communities, are called . Such " workers " are essential to the formation of a social community of Hymenoptera, and their wingless condition among the ants shows that their specialization has been carried further in this family than among the wasps and bees .

Further, while among wasps and bees we find some solitary and some social genera, the ants as a family are social, though some aberrant See also:

• SPECIES

species are dependent on the workers of other ants . It is interesting and suggestive that in t few families of digging Hymenoptera (such as the Mutillidae), allied to the ants, the females are wingless . The perfect See also:

• FEMALE

female or " See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen " ants (See also:

• FIGS

figs . 1, 1,3, a) often See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast their wings (fig . 3,b) after the nuptial See also:

• FLIGHT

flight; in a few species the females, and in still fewer the See also:

• MALES

males, never develop wings . (For the so-called " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white ants,"which belong to an order far removed from the Hymenoptera, see See also:

• TERMITE

TERMITE.) Structure.—The See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers, each consisting of a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute basal and an elongate second segment, forming the stalk or " scape," while from eight to eleven See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short segments make up the terminal "flagellum." These segments are abundantly supplied with elongate tooth-like projections connected with See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve-endings probably olfactory in See also:

• FUNCTION

function . The See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain is well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed and its " See also:

• MUSHROOM

mushroom-bodies " are exceptionally large . The mandibles, which are frequently used for carrying various objects, are situated well to the outside of the maxillae, so that they can be opened and shut without interfering with the latter . The peculiar form and arrangement of the anterior abdominal segments have already been described . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth abdominal segment is often very large, and forms the greater part of the hind-body; this segment is markedly constricted at its basal (forward) end, where it is embraced by the small third segment . In many of those ants whose third abdominal segment forms a second " node," the basal dorsal region of the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of very See also:

• FINE

fine transverse striations; over these the See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp hinder edge of the third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a stridulating See also:

• ORGAN

organ which gives rise to a See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of very high See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch . For the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators, the ants are furnished with delicate See also:

• ORGANS

organs of See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing (chordotonal organs) in the head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal segments and in the shins of the legs .

2 The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens and workers resemble those of other stinging Hymenoptera . But there are several subfamilies of ants whose females have the lancets of the sting useless for piercing, although the See also:

• POISON

poison-glands are functional, their secretion being ejected by the See also:

• INSECT

insect, when occasion may arise, from the greatly enlarged See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir, the reduced sting acting as a squirt . Nests.—The nests of different kinds of ants are constructed in very different situations; many species (Lasius, for example) make underground nests; galleries and See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers being hollowed out in the See also:

• SOIL

soil, and opening by small holes on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, or protected above by a large See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone . The See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood ant (Formica rufa, fig. r) piles up a heap of leaves, twigs and other See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable refuse, so arranged as to form an orderly See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of galleries, though the structure appears at first sight a chaotic heap . Species of Camponotus and many other ants See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel in wood . In tropical countries ants sometimes make their nests in the hollow thorns of trees or on leaves; species with this See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit are believed to make a return to the See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree for the shelter that it affords by protecting it from the ravages of other insects, including their own See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-cutting relations . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Stages.—The larvae of ants (fig . 3, e) are legless and helpless maggots with very small heads (fig . 3, f), into whose mouths the requisite See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food has to be forced by the assiduous " See also:

• NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nu/rite, to nourish)

nurse " workers . The maggots are tended by these nurses with the greatest care, and carried to those parts of the See also:

• NEST

nest most favour-able for their See also:

• HEALTH

health and growth . When fully grown, the maggot spins an See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval silken cocoon within which it pupates (fig . 3, g) .

These cocoons, which may often be seen carried between the mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as food for See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and pheasants . The workers of a Ceylonese ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) are stated by D . Sharp to hold the maggots between their mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of trees from which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have no See also:

• SILK

silk-producing organs . Origin of See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

Societies.—Ant-colonies are founded either by a single female or by several in association . The foundress of the nest See also:

• LAYS

lays eggs and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of which develop into workers . C . See also:

• JANET, PAUL (1823—1899)

Janet observed that in a nest of Lasius alienus, established by a single female, the first workers emerged from their cocoons on the ro2nd See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . These workers then take on themselves the labour of the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony, some See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting food, which they See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer to their comrades within the nest whose See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty is to tend and feed the larvae . The foundress-queen is now gaited on by the workers, who See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply her with food and spare her all cares of See also:

• WORK

work, so that henceforth she may devote her whole energies to See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg-laying . The population of the colony increases fast, and a well-grown nest contains several " queens " and males, besides a large number of workers . One of the most interesting features of ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that may often be seen among the workers, the same species being represented by two or more forms . Thus the See also:

• BRITISH

British "wood ant" (Formica rufa) has a smaller and a larger See also:

• RACE

race of workers (" See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor " and " See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major " forms), while in Ponera we find a See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in Alta, Eciton and other genera, four or five forms of ,workers are produced, the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant mandibles, are known as the " soldier " See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste .

The development of such diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified females which show none of their peculiarities raises many points of difficulty for students in See also:

• HEREDITY

heredity . It is thought that the See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences are, in part at least, due to differences in the nature of the food supplied to larvae, which are apparently all alike . But the ovaries of worker ants are in some cases sufficiently developed for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of eggs, which may give rise parthenogenetic-ally to male, queen or worker offspring . Food.—Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances which they use for food . See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

Honey forms the See also:

• STAPLE

staple nourishment of many ants, some of the workers seeking See also:

• NECTAR

nectar from See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, working it up into honey within their stomachs and regurgitating it so as to feed their comrades within the nest, who, in their turn, pass it on to the grubs . A curious specialization of certainworkers in connexion with the transference of honey has been demonstrated by H . C . See also:

• MCCOOK, ALEXANDER MCDOWELL (1831-1903)

McCook in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American genus Myrmecocystus, and by later observers in Australian and See also:

• AFRICAN

African species of Plagiolepis and allied genera . The workers in question remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as living honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the supplies of honey poured into their mouths by their foraging comrades that their abdomens become sub-globular, the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale intersegmental membrane being tightly stretched between the widely-separated dark sclerites . The " nurse " workers in the nest can then draw their supplies from these " honey-pots." Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such as the British " red ants " with well-developed stings (Myrmica rubra), and the notorious " See also:

• DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

driver ants " of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and See also:

• AMERICA

America, the old-See also:

• WORLD

world species of which belong to Dorylus and allied genera, and the new-world species to Eciton (fig . 2, 2, 3) . In these ants the difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females, and the small, See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various forms of the same species have been often referred to distinct genera; in Eciton, for example, the female has a single petiolate abdominal segment, the worker two .

The workers of these ants range over the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country in large armies, killing and carrying off all the insects and See also:

• SPIDERS

spiders that they find and sometimes attacking vertebrates . They have been known to enter human dwellings, removing all the verminous insects contained therein . These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in Fin . 2.-Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants. i, Alta cephalus; 2, Eciton drepanophora; 3, Eciton erratica . hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen, according to T . See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

Belt, " clustered together in a dense See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass like a great swarm of bees See also:

• HANGING

hanging from the roof." The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known,the subterranean See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store-houses of Mediterranean species of Aphaenogaster having been described by J . T . Moggridge and A . Forel, and the complex See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries of the Texan Pogonomyrmex barbatus by H . C . McCook and W . M .

See also:

• WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906)
• WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887)

Wheeler . The colonies of A phaenogaster occupy nests extending over an See also:

• AREA

area of fifty to a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred square yards several feet below the surface of the ground . Into these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of See also:

• GRASSES

grasses and other See also:

• PLANTS

plants of which they accumulate large stores . The species of Pogonomyrmex See also:

• STRIP

strip the husks from the seeds and carry them out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance . The seeds are harvested from various grasses, especially from Aristida oligantha, a species known as " ant See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice," which often grows in quantity dose to the site selected for the nest, but the statement that the ants deliberately sow this grass is an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error, due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting of germinating seeds which the ants have turned out of their store-chambers . ' Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the genus See also:

• ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS

Atta,—the leaf-cutting ants of tropical America (fig . 2, 1) . There are several forms of worker in these species, some with enormous heads, which remain in the underground nests, while their smaller comrades scour the country in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of suitable trees, which they ascend, biting off small circular pieces from the leaves, and carrying them off to the nests . Their labour often results in the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete defoliation of the tree . The tracks along which the ants carry the leaves to their nests are often in part subterranean . H . C .

McCook describes an almost straight tunnel, nearly 450 ft. long, made by Alta fervens . Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments and gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy mass. which—according to the researches of A . Moller—serves as the substratum for a See also:

• SPECIAL

special fungus (Rozites gongylophora), the staple food of the ants . The'insects cultivate their fungus, weeding out See also:

• MOULD

mould and bacterial growths, and causing the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, on the surface of their " mushroom See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden," of numerous small white bodies formed by swollen ends of the fungus hyphae . When the fungus is grown elsewhere than in the ants' nest it produces gonidia instead of the white masses on which the ants feed, hence it seems that these masses are indeed produced as the result of some unknown cultural See also:

• PROCESS

process . Other genera of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South American ants—A plerostigma and Cyphomyrmex—make similar fungal cultivations, but they use wood, See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain or dung as the substratum instead of leaf fragments . Each See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of ant is so addicted to its own particular fungal food that it refuses disdainfully, even when hungry, the produce of an See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien nest . Guests of Ants.—Many ants feed largely and some almost entirely on the saccharine secretions of other insects, the best known of which are the See also:

• APHIDES (pl. of Aphis)

Aphides (plant-lice or " See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green-See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly ") . This See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration leads us to one of the most remarkable and fascinating features of ant-communities—the presence in the nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are tended and cared for by the ants as their " guests," rendering to the ants in return the sweet food which they See also:

• DESIRE

desire . The relation between ants and aphids has often been compared to that between men and milch See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle . See also:

• SIR

Sir J . Lubbock (See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• AVEBURY
• AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, 1ST BARON (1834– )

Avebury) states that the See also:

• COMMON

common British yellow ants (Lasius fiavus) collect flocks of See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root-feeding aphids in their underground nests, protect them, build earthen shelters over them, and take the greatest care of their eggs .

Other ants, such as the British See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black garden species (L. See also:

• NIGER
• NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS

niger), go after the aphids that frequent the shoots of plants . Many species of aphid migrate from one plant to another at certain stages in their life-See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle when their See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers have very largely increased, and F . M . See also:

• WEBSTER
• WEBSTER, ALEXANDER (1707-1784)
• WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM (1797-1882)
• WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852)
• WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624)
• WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1773-1844)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1800-1886)

Webster has observed ants, foreseeing this See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration, to carry aphids from See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple trees to grasses . It has been shown by M . Busgen that the sweet secretion (honey-See also:

• DEW

dew) of the aphids is not derived, as generally believed, from the paired cornicles on the fifth abdominal segment, but from the See also:

• INTESTINE (Lat. intestinus, internal, usually in neuter plural intestina. from intus, within)

intestine, whence it exudes in drops and is swallowed by the ants . Besides the aphids, other insects, such as See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale insects (Coccidae), caterpillars of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue butterflies (Lycaenidae), and numerous beetles, furnish the ants with nutrient secretions . The number of species of beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly large, and most of these are never found elsewhere, being blind, helpless and dependent on the ants' care for See also:

• PROTECTION

protection and food; these beetles belong for the most part to the families Pselaphidae, Paussidae and Staphylinidae . See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

Spring-tails and bristle-tails (order See also:

• APTERA (Greek for " wingless ")

Aptera) of several species also frequent ants' nests . While some of these " See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

guest " insects produce secretions that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless inmates of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing in return . Others again See also:

• PLAY

play the part of thieves in the ant society; C . Janet observed a small bristle-tail (Lepismima) to lurk beneath the heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed food to the other, in order to steal the drop of nourishment and to make off with it .

The same naturalist describes the association with Lasius of small mites (Antennophorus) which are carried about by the worker ants, one of which may have a See also:

• MITE

mite beneath her mouth, and another on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of her See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen . On patting their See also:

• CARRIER
• CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1956-1794)

carrier or some passing ant, the mites are supplied with food, no service being rendered by them in return for the ants' care . Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests the same See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals . See also:

• RECENT

Recent advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is due principally to E . Wasmann, who has compiled a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of nearly 1500 species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting ants' nests . The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the nests, due both to the fresh supplies brought in by the ants and to the large amount of See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste See also:

• MATTER

matter that accumulates, must prove strongly attractive to the various " guests." Some of the inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of preying upon the ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of relations between the owners of the nests and their companions, from mutual benefit to active hostility . Among these associations or guests other species of ants arenot wanting . For example, a minute species (Solenopsis fugax) lives in a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound nest with various species of Formica, forming narrow galleries which open into the larger galleries of its See also:

• HOST

host . The Solenopsis can make its way into the territory of the Formica to steal the larvae which serve it as food, but the Formica is too large to pursue the thief when it returns to its own galleries . Slaves.—Several species of ants are found in association with another species which stands to them in the relation of slave to See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master . Formica sanguinea is a well-known See also:

• EUROPEAN

European slave-making ant that inhabits England; its workers See also:

• RAID

raid the nests of F. fusca and other species, and carry off to their own nests pupae from which workers are developed that live contentedly as slaves of their captors . F. sanguinea can live either with or without slaves, but another European ant (Polyergus rufescens) is so dependent on its slaves—various species of Formica—that its workers are themselves unable to feed the larvae .

The remarkable genus Anergates has no workers, and its wingless males and females are served by communities of Tetramorium cespitum (fig . 3) . Senses and Intelligence of Ants.—That ants possess highly developed senses and the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of communicating with one another has long been known to students of their habits; the researches of P . See also:

• HUBER, FRANCOIS (1750-1831)
• HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879)
• HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764–1804)

Huber and Sir J . Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on these subjects are See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to all naturalists . The insects are guided by See also:

• LIGHT

light, being very sensitive to ultra-See also:

• VIOLET

violet rays, and also by See also:

• SCENT

scent and hearing . Recent experiments by A . M . Fielde show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent exercised by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates of her nest by a sense of See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell See also:

• RESIDENT

resident in the See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh segment, is guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which she has to tend, by sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and appreciates the general smell of the nest itself by means of organs in the twelfth segment . Lubbock's experiments of inducing ants to seek objects that had been removed show that they are guided by scent rather than by sight, and that any disturbance of their surroundings often causes great uncertainty in their actions . Ants invite one another to work, or ask for food from one another, by means of pats with the feelers; and they See also:

• RESPOND

respond to the solicitations of their guest-beetles or mites, who ask for food by patting the ants with their feet . In all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the actions of ants are for the most part instinctive or reflex, and some observers, such as A .

Bethe, deny them all claim to psychical qualities . But it seems impossible to doubt that in many cases ants behave in a manner that must be considered intelligent, that they can learn by experience and that they possess memory . Lubbock goes so far as to conclude the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of his experiments with the remark that " It is difficult altogether to deny them the See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . . . their See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers differ from those of men, not so much in kind as in degree." Wasmann considers that ants are neither See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature human beings nor See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere reflex automata, and most students of their habits will probably accept this intermediate position as the most satisfactory . C . L . See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan sums up a discussion on Lubbock's experiments in which the ants failed to utilize particles of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth for See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge-making, with the suggestive remark that " What these valuable experiments seem to show is that the ant, probably the most intelligent of all insects, has no claim to be regarded as a rational being." Nevertheless, ants can See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach " rational beings " many valuable lessons . (G . H .