APOLOGETICS  , in See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a super-natural See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation and a divine redemption (cf. e.g . Heb. i . 1-3) . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of apologists in the past have further believed in an infallible See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible; but they admit this position can only be reached at a See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument . We should See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, how-ever, that even a liberal orthodoxy, while saying nothing about See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

infallibility, is pledged to the essential authority of the Bible; it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament with F . E . D . See also:

• SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST (1768-1834)

Schleiermacher . See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic apologetics must further give a central position to See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church authority, which See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics explicitly define as infallible; but this position too is debated in a late See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of their See also:

• SYSTEM

system . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, there may be a See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity which seeks to extricate the " spiritual " from the" supernatural " (See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold See also:

• TOYNBEE, ARNOLD (1852-1883)

Toynbee, characterizing T.H.See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green) . It would only See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to confusion, however, if we called this method " apologetic." Any single effort in apologetics may be termed " an See also:

• APOLOGY (from Gr. &aoXoyia, defence)

apology." More elaborate contrasts have been proposed between the two words, but are of little See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical importance . 1 .

The Word itself.—In See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, ItiroXoryia is the See also:

• DEFENDANT

defendant's reply (personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution—uarnyopia . Sometimes defendants' speeches passed into literature, e.g . See also:

• PLATO

Plato's splendid version of the Apology of See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates . Thus, in view of persecution or See also:

• SLANDER

slander, the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian church naturally produced See also:

• LITERARY

literary " Apologies." The word has never quite lost this See also:

• CONNOTATION

connotation of See also:

• STANDING

standing on the defensive and rebutting See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism; e.g . See also:

• ANSELM
• ANSELM (c. 1033-1109)

Anselm's Apologia contra insipientem Gaunilonem (c. r Too) ; or the Lutheran Apology for the See also:

• AUGSBURG
• AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF
• AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF

Augsburg See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

Confession (1531); or J . H . See also:

• NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897)
• NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890)

Newman's Apologia See also:

• PRO

pro vita sua (1864); or A . B . See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce's Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively Stated (1892) . Of course, See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence easily passes into See also:

• COUNTER

counter-attack, as when See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early apologists denounce Greek and Roman phase of See also:

• PLATONISM

Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted . The earlier apologists dispute the natural See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

immortality of the soul; See also:

• ATHANASIUS (293-373)

Athanasius himself, in De Incarnatione Dei, §§ 4, 5, tones down the teaching of See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

Wisdom; and the somewhat See also:

• ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric writer See also:

• ARNOBIUS (" the younger ")
• ARNOBIUS (called Afer, and sometimes " the Elder ")

Arnobius, a layman—from See also:

• JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS)

Justin See also:

• MARTYR (Gr. pimp or µaprvs)

Martyr downwards apologetics has always been largely in the hands of laymen—stands for what has recently been called " conditional immortality "—eternal See also:

• LIFE

life for the righteous, the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of See also:

• GOD

God, alone . Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion that Greek See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy borrowed from See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses; but in studying the Fathers we constantly find that groundless assertion uttered in the same breath with the dominant Idealist view, according to which Greek philosophy was due to incomplete revelation from the divine See also:

• LOGOS (X4os)

Logos .

On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to meet in See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret, and the See also:

• GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing in relation to)

gossip of a rotten See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant conclusions . They make counter attacks on polytheism as a folly and on the shamefulness of obscene myths . Here they are in See also:

• LINE

line with non-Christian writers or culture-mockers like See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian of See also:

• SAMOSATA (Eau6vara, -arum, Ptol. v. 15 § r 1 ; Strabo xvi. 749)

Samosata; or graver See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits like See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

Porphyry, who champions Neo-Platonism as a See also:

• RIVAL

rival to Christianity, and does See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer See also:

• WORK

work in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament books . Turning to Christian See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence proper, we are struck with the continued prominence of the argument from prophecy . The Old Testament was an immense religious asset to the early church . Their enemies had nothing like it; and—the N.T. See also:

• CANON

canon being as yet but See also:

• HALF

half formed—the Old Testament was pushed into See also:

• NOTICE

notice by dwelling on this imperfect " argument," which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew more extravagant as the partial See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control exercised by Jewish learning disappeared . An argument from miracles is also urged, though with more reserve . Formally, every one in that age admitted the supernatural . The question was, whose supernatural ? And how far did it carry you ? See also:

• MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder)

Miracle could not be to a 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century writer what it was to W . See also:

• PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP (1815-1888)
• PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805)

Paley—a conclusive and well-nigh solitary See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof .

Other apologies are by See also:

• ARISTIDES
• ARISTIDES ['Apuvrei817s] (c. 530—468 B.C.)
• ARISTIDES, AELIUS
• ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF
• ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS

Aristides (recently recovered in See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation), See also:

• ATHENAGORAS

Athenagoras ("elegant "), See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius of Caesarea, See also:

• CYRIL (376-444)
• CYRIL (827-869)
• CYRIL (c. 315–386)

Cyril of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria; in Latin by Minucius See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix, See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian (a masculine spirit and phrase-coiner like T . See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, &c., &c.' As Christianity wins the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, a new objection is raised to it . The age is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire ! Besides notices elsewhere, we find the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge specially dealt with by St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine and his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends . See also:

• PAULUS
• PAULUS (older form PAur.Lus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS
• PAULUS, HEINRICH

Paulus See also:

• OROSIUS, PAULUS (fl. 415)

Orosius argues that the See also:

• WORLD

world has always been a vale of tears . See also:

• SALVIAN

Salvian contends that not the See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of Christianity, but the sins of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly evidence of the continued prevalence of See also:

• VICE

vice . Most impressive of all was Augustine's own contribution in The See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City of God . See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

Powers created by worldliness and See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin are crumbling, as they well may; "the city of God remaigeth!" Whether he meant it so or not, the See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint's argument became a See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme and an apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church under the leadership of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome during the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages . IV . Middle Ages.—From the point of view of apologetics, we may See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass together the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long stretch of See also:

• HISTORY

history which covers the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period between the disappearance and the re-See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of See also:

• FREE

free discussion . When emperors became converts, the church, so lately a victim and a pleader for See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty, readily learned to persecute . Under such conditions there is little See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for apologetics .

Force kills argument and drives doubt below the smooth See also:

• SURFACE

surface of a nominal conformity . But there were two influences beyond the See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds or beyond the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the christianized empire . The See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew remained, as always, stubbornly unconvinced, and, as often, fond of slanders . Many of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval attempts in apologetics are directed chiefly against him, e.g. the Pugio Fidei of See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond See also:

• MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1706–1784)
• MARTINI, SIMONE (1283-1344)

Martini (c . 128o), ' While these writings are of See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical value, they do not, of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day . The Church of Rome prefers medieval or See also:

• MODERN

modern statements of its position; Protestantism can use only modern statements.which became one of See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal's See also:

• SOURCES

sources (see V. below), or See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard's Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et Christianum . And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift for Christendom, See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian, texts . The See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism than the Christians were, caught See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire more rapidly, and in some cases served as an intermediate See also:

• LINK

link or channel of communication . These two religions anticipated the discussion of the problem of faith and See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason in the Christian church . According to the great See also:

• AVICENNA

Avicenna and See also:

• MAIMONIDES

Maimonides, faith and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY) . According to Ghazali, in his Destruction of Philosophers, the various See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of philosophy See also:

• CANCEL (from the Lat. cancelli, a plural diminutive of cancer, a grating or lattice, from which are also derived " chancel " and " chancellor ")

cancel each other; reason is bankrupt; faith is 'everything . (So nearly Jehuda See also:

• HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1o85-c. 1140)

Halevi.) According to See also:

• AVERROES [Abul - Walid Muhammad ibn - Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198)

Averroes, reason suffices, and faith, with (what he considers) its dreams of immortality and the like, is useful only for the ignorant masses .

Christian theology, how-ever, strikes out a line of its own . Moslems and Jews were applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic faiths; Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in teaching a trinity of divine persons, and Platonism of a certain See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order long dominated the middle ages as See also:

• PART

part of the Augustinian tradition . In sympathy with this Platonism, the medieval church began by assuming the entire mutual See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony of faith and reason . Such is the teaching, along different lines, alike of St Anselm and of Abelard . But, when increased knowledge of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle's texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory of a supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, Albertus See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus, and his still more distinguished See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas, See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark certain doctrines as belonging to faith but not to reason . They adhere to the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general position with exceptions (in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of what had been considered Platonic doctrines) . From the point of view of philosophy, this was a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise . Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge . The tendency of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the doctrines with which philosophy cannot See also:

• DEAL

deal . Thomas's great rival, See also:

• DUNS

Duns Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming " two truths." The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the Averroists, becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of See also:

• OCCAM, WILLIAM OF (d. c. 1349)

Occam and his disciples, who withdraw all doctrines of faith from the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of reason . This was a second and a more audacious compromise . It is not exactly an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to See also:

• BASE

base Christian faith on rational See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism .

It is a consistent policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind . A statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or vice versa . To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church of Rome (at least in regard to the basis of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine) has more and more returned . The See also:

• COUNCILS

councils of See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent and of the Vatican mark the Two Truths See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis as heretical, when they affirm that there is a natural knowledge of God and natural certainty of immortality . Along with this See also:

• AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert)

affirmation, the Church of Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of the Thomist theory by the condemnation of " Ontologism "; certain mysterious doctrines are beyond reason . This cautious compromise sanctioned by the Church does not represent the extremes' reaction against See also:

• NOMINALISM (from Lat. nomen, name)

nominalism . Even in the nominalistic See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch we have Raymond of Sabunde's Natural Theology (according to the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in See also:

• HERZOG, HANS (1819–1894)
• HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882)

Herzog-Hauck, not the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris MS., but found in later See also:

• MSS

MSS. and almost all the printed See also:

• EDITIONS

editions) or See also:

• LIBER

Liber Creaturarum (c . 1435) . The See also:

• BOOK

book is not what moderns (schooled unconsciously in See also:

• POST

post-See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation developments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural theology . It is an attempt once more to demonstrate all scholastic dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles of natural reason . At many points it follows Anselm closely, and, of course, very often " makes See also:

• LIGHT

light work" of its task . The Thomist compromise—or even the more sceptical view of "two truths "—has the merit of giving filling of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind to the See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula "supernatural revelation "—mysteries inaccessible to reason, beyond See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery and beyond comprehension .

According to earlier views—repeatedly revived in Protestantism —revelation is just philosophy over again . Can the choice be fairly stated ? If revelation is thought of as God's See also:

• PERSONAL

personal word, and redemption as his personal See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed, is it reasonable to view them either as open to a sort of scientific prediction or as capricious and unintelligible ? Even in the middle ages there were not wanting those—the St Victors, See also:

• BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA)

Bonaventura—who sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as the central thought of Christianity . V . Earlier Modern Period.—It will be seen that apologetics by no means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority . The compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field and that even with Protestants . G . W . See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz devotes an See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter in his Thgodicge, 1710 (as against See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre See also:

• BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706)

Bayle), to faith and reason . He is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good enough Lutheran to quote as a "See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery" the See also:

• EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

Eucharist no less than the Trinity, while he insists that truths above are not against reason . Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning ?

The more celebrated and central thesis of the book—this finite universe, the best of all such that are possible—also restates positions of Augustine and Aquinas . Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great revival of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient philosophy at the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance; sometimes See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Christian, sometimes pro-Christian . The latter furnishes apologies by Marsilio See also:

• FICINO, MARSILIO (1433-1499)

Ficino, See also:

• AGOSTINO
• AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629)

Agostino See also:

• STEUCO [in Latin STEUCHUS or EUGUBINUS], AGOSTINO (1406-15:19)

Steuco, J . L . See also:

• VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1540)

Vives . Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) . A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging to a school of Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom the Church put down as heretics, he stands See also:

• PRETTY

pretty much apart from the general currents . His Pensges, published posthumously, seems to have been meant for a systematic See also:

• TREATISE

treatise, but it has come to us in fragments . Once again, a See also:

• LAY

lay apologist ! A layman's work may have the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of originality or the See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback of imperfect knowledge . Pascal's work exhibits both characters . It has the originality of rare See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius, but it borrows its material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few sources—the Pugio Fidei, M. de See also:

• MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE (1533-1592)

Montaigne, P .

See also:

• CHARRON, PIERRE (1541-1603)

Charron . Ideas as well as learning are largely Montaigne's . The latter's cheerful See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man-of-the-world scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep distrust of human reason, in part, perhaps, from anti-See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant motives . But this attitude, while not without See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels both earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later (H . L . See also:

• MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871)

Mansel), has peculiarities in Pascal . It is fallen man whom he pursues with his fierce scorn; his view of man's nature—See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect as well as See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character—is to be read in the light of his unflinching Augustinianism . Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the small See also:

• COMPANY

company of saintly souls . This philosophical sceptic is full of humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour . Another See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Roman Catholic apologist, P . D . See also:

• HUET, PIERRE DANIEL (1630-1721)

Huet (163o–1721)—within the conditions of his age a See also:

• PRODIGY

prodigy of learning (in apologetics see his Demonstratio Evangelica)—is not uninfluenced by Pascal (Traitg de la faiblesse de l'esprit humaine) .

As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied with apologetics . Intolerant reliance upon force presents greater difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete . See also:

• BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS)
• BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885)

Benedict See also:

• SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)

Spinoza, the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom miracle is impossible, revelation a phrase, and who renews pioneer work in Old Testament criticism, finds at least a See also:

• FAIR

fair measure of liberty and comfort in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland (his See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-See also:

• LAND

land) . Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and published his learned Dictionnaire (1696) at See also:

• ROTTERDAM

Rotterdam . From Holland, earlier, had proceeded an apologetic work by a man of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European fame . See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo See also:

• GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645)

Grotius's De Veritate Christianae Religionis (1627) is partly the medieval tradition:—Oppose Mahommedans and Jews ! It is partly practical:—See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

Arm Christian sailors against religious danger ! But in its cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master is See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke . His Reasonableness of Christianity (1695) is the thesis of " a whole century " of theologians . And his See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay on the Human Understanding (1690) is almost a Bible to men of See also:

• EDUCATION

education during the same period; its lightest word treasured . Locke does not break with the compromise of Aquinas . But he transfers See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention from contents to proof .

Reason proves that a revelation has been made—and then submits . Leibnitz has to supplement rather than correct Locke on this point . In such an See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, See also:

• DEISM (Lat. dens, god)

deism readily uttered its protest against mysterious revelation . Deism is, in fact, the Thomist natural theology (more clearly distinguished from dogmatic theology than in the middle ages, alike by Protestants and by the post-Tridentine Church of Rome) now dissolving See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with dogmatic and starting in business for itself . Or it is the doctrine of unfallen man's " natural See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state "—a doctrine intensified in Protestantism—separating itself from the theologians' See also:

• GRAVE

grave doctrine of sin . If Socinianism had challenged natural theology—See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, according to it, was the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet who first revealed the way to eternal life—it had glorified the natural powers of man; and the learning of the Arminian divines (friends of Grotius and Locke) had helped to modernize Christian apologetics upon rational lines . Deism now taught that reason, or " the light of nature," was all-sufficient . Not to dwell upon earlier See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental " Deists " (mentioned by Viret as quoted first in Bayle's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary and again in the introduction to See also:

• LELAND (LEYLAND Or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552)
• LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903)
• LELAND, JOHN (1691–1766)

Leland's View of the Deistical Writers), See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert of Cherbury (De Veritate, 1624; De See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion Gentilium, 1645?—according to J . G . See also:

• WALCH, JOHANN GEORG (1693-1775)

Walch's Bibliotheca Theologica (1757) not published See also:

• COMPLETE

complete until 1663) was universally understood as hinting conclusions hostile to Christianity (cf. also T . See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes, See also:

• LEVIATHAN

Leviathan, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, 167o, ch. xiv.) . Professedly, Herbert's contention merely is that non-Christians feeling after the " supreme God and the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of righteousness must have a See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of salvation .

Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in teaching that priests had corrupted this See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive faith . During the 18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were " irrepressible men like See also:

• TOLAND, JOHN [christened JANUS JuN1us] (1670-1722)

Toland, men of mediocre culture and ability like See also:

• ANTHONY, SAINT
• ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906)

Anthony See also:

• COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-1729)
• COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1908)
• COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876)
• COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759)
• COLLINS, WILLIAM (1787–1847)
• COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824–1889)

Collins, vulgar men like See also:

• CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845)
• CHUBB, THOMAS (1679-1946)

Chubb, irritated and disagreeable men like See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• TINDAL, MATTHEW (d. 1733)

Tindal, who conformed that he might enjoy his See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford fellowship and wrote anonymously that he might relieve his See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience " (A . M . See also:

• FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838- )
• FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM

Fairbairn) . More distinguished sympathizers are See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon, who has the deistic spirit, and See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume, the historian and philosophical sceptic, who has at least the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the deistic creed (Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion), and who uses Pascal's See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to " faith " in a spirit of mockery (Essay on Miracles) . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France the new school found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

Voltaire, the idol of his age—a great denier and scoffer, but always sincerely a believer in the God of reason—and the deeper but wilder spirit of J . J . See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau . Others in France See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed still more startling conclusions from Locke's principles, E . B . See also:

• CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715—178o)

Condillac's See also:

• SENSATIONALISM

sensationalism—Locke's philosophy purged of its more ideal if less logical elements—leading on to See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

materialism in J . O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists (P .

H. von See also:

• HOLBACH, PAUL HEINRICH DIETRICH, BARON

Holbach) capped materialism with confessed See also:

• ATHEISM (from Gr. as, privative, and Oebs, God)

atheism . In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the parallel See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of " See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination " (H . S . See also:

• REIMARUS, HERMANN SAMUEL (1694-1768)

Reimarus; J . S . See also:

• SEMLER, JOHANN SALOMO (1725-179I)

Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a layman, the great See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing) took the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of " See also:

• RATIONALISM (from Lat. rationalis, pertaining to reason, ratio)

rationalism " within the church—interpreting Bible texts by See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main force in a way which the age thought " enlightened " (H . E . G . Paulus, 1761–1851, &c.) . Among the innumerable See also:

• ENGLISH

English anti-deistic writers (see W . Law, The Case of Reason; R . See also:

• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742)
• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871)

Bentley, or " Phileleutherus Lipsiensis "; &c., &c.), three are of See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief importance .

Nathaniel See also:

• LARDNER, DIONYSIUS (1793-1859)
• LARDNER, NATHANIEL (1684-1768)

Lardner (Arian, 1684–1768) stands in the front See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of the scholarship of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and uses his vast knowledge to maintain the genuineness of all books of the New Testament and the perfect accuracy of its history . See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler, a very See also:

• ORIGINAL

original, careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from details to principles in his See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

Analogy of Religion both Natural and Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736) . This title introduces us to a new conception . Deists and orthodox in those days agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology but natural religion—" essential religion," Butler more than once styles it; the expression shows how near he stood intellectually to those he criticized . But morally he stood aloof . In part i.—on Natural Religion—he defends a moral or punishing Deity against the sentimental softness of the age . The God of Nature, whom deists confess, does punish in time, if they will but look at the facts; why not in eternity ? "Morality, as others have confessed, is " the nature of things "t Not the Being of God is discussed—Butler will not See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste words on triflers (as he thinks them) who deny that—but God's character . Unfortunately (perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on admitted principles; holds much of his own moral belief in reserve; tries to reduce everything to a question of probable fact . If this hampers him in part i., the situation appears still worse in part ii., which is directly occupied with the defence of Christianity . Butler says nothing about incomprehensible mysteries, and protests that reason is the only ground we have to proceed upon . But by treating the See also:

• ATONEMENT

atonement simply as revealed (and unexplained) See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact—in spite of some partial analogies in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous—Butler repeats, and applies to the moral contents of Christianity, what Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines .

(Whether one calls the unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and in-explicable fact makes little difference.) William Paley (1743--1805) borrows from many writers; he borrows Lardner's learning and Butler's " particular evidence for Christianity," viz. miracles, prophecy and " history "; and he states his points with perfect clearness . No man ever filled a typical position more exactly than Paley . Eighteenth-century See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics—See also:

• HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant)

Hedonism, with a theological background . Empiricist Natural Theology—the argument from See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

Design . Christian Evidences—the strong See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of the resurrection of Christ and the consequent authority of his teaching . Horae Paulinae—mutual confirmations of Acts and Epistles; better, though one-sided . When such exclusively " See also:

• EXTERNAL

external " arguments are urged, the contents of Christianity go for next to nothing . VI . Later Modern Period.—Towards the end of the 18th century a new epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . The See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant, though he includes many agnostic elements, and draws the inference (which some things in the letter of Butler might seem to See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant) that the essence of Christianity is an ethical See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

theism . While he thus created a new and more ethical " rational-ism," Kant's many-sided See also: