See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

AQUEDUCT (See also:

• LAT

Lat. aqua, See also:

• WATER

water, and ducere, to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)  , a See also:

• TERM

term properly including artificial See also:

• WORKS

works of every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind by means of which See also:

• WATER

water is conveyed from one See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to another, but generally used in a more limited sense . It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases where the See also:

• WORK

work is of considerable magnitude and importance, and where the water flows naturally by See also:

• GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy)

gravitation . The most important purpose for which aqueducts are constructed is that of conveying pure water, from See also:

• SOURCES

sources more or less distant, to large masses of See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . Aqueducts are either below ground, on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, or raised on walls either solid or pierced with See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches; to the last the term is often confined in popular See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . The choice of method naturally depends on the See also:

• CONTOUR

contour of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . I . See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Aqueducts.—In See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, Babylonia and See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria—See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat countries traversed by big See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and subject to floods—water was supplied by means of open canals with large basins . In See also:

• PERSIA

Persia devices of all kinds were adopted according to the nature of the country . In relation to the achievements of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, the Phoenicians are the most important among pre-classical See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers . In See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus water was supplied to temples by See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-cut subterranean conduits carried across intervening valleys in siphons . Such conduits have been found near See also:

• CITIUM (Gr. Kition)

Citium, See also:

• AMATHUS

Amathus, &c . (See also:

• CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832–1904)

Cesnola, Cyprus, pp .

187, 341) . In See also:

• SYRIA

Syria the most striking of Phoenician waterworks is the well of See also:

• RAS

Ras-el-See also:

• AIN

Ain near See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, which consisted of four strong octagonal towers through which rises to a height of r8 to 20 ft. the water from four deep artesian See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells . The water thus accumulated was carried off in conduits to reservoirs near the See also:

• SHORE

shore, and thence in vessels or skins to the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island . The See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct across to the island is, of course, of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman work . It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for the numerous conduits which have supplied See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem; some probably go back to the times of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of See also:

• JUDAH

Judah . Jerusalem . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir consists of the three Pools of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest is about 20 ft. above the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle one and 40 above the lowest . These pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs, and sent it to the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city by two conduits . The higher of these—probably the older—was partly a rock-cut See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal, partly carried on See also:

• MASONRY

masonry; the See also:

• SIPHON, or SYPHON (Lat. sipho; Gr. vi4xov, a tube)

siphon-See also:

• PIPE

pipe See also:

• SYSTEM

system was adopted across the See also:

• LOWER

lower ground near See also:

• RACHEL (1821-1858)

Rachel's See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is formed of large pierced stones embedded in See also:

• RUBBLE

rubble masonry . The lower conduit is still See also:

• COMPLETE

complete; it winds so much as to be altogether some 20 m. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . Near the Birket-es-See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

Sultan it passes over the valley of Hinnom on nine See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low arches and reaches the city on the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill above the Tyropeon valley . It enters the Haram enclosure at the See also:

• GATE

Gate of the See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

Chain (Bab es-Silsila), outside which is a See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep .

It is interesting to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the underground, See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel which brought water from the Virgin's See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

Fountain to the See also:

• POOL

pool of Siloam, that the two See also:

• BORING

boring parties had no certain means of keeping the See also:

• LINE

line; there is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that they had to make shafts to discover their position, and that ultimately the parties almost passed one another . Though the See also:

• DIRECT

direct distance is ttoo ft., the length of the conduit is over 1700 ft . See also:

• PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1S27–1592)

Perrot and Chipiez incline to attribute the Pools of Solomon to the 'Asmonaeans, followed by Roman See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and Tyropeon valley may be Punic-Jewish (see also Palest . Explor . Fund Mem., " Jerusalem," pp . 346-365) . Besides these conduits excavation has discovered traces of many other cisterns, tunnels and conduits of various kinds . Many of them point to periods of See also:

• GREAT

great prosperity and See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering enterprise which gave to the city a water-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply far See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to that which exists at See also:

• PRESENT

present . See the publications of the See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine Exploration Fund; A . S . See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray's Handbook to Syria and Palestine (1903), pp . 63-67 ; Perrot and Chipiez, See also:

• HISTORY

History of See also:

• ART

Art in See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia, See also:

• JUDAEA

Judaea, &c .

(Eng. trans., 1890), pp . 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under JERUSALEM . The earliest attempts in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe to solve the problems of water-supply were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived their ideas from the Phoenicians . It has generally See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek. been held, partly on the strength of a passage in See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo (v 3 . 8, p . 235), and partly owing to the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative unimportance of the remains discovered, that the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek works were altogether inferior to the Roman . See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

Research in the Greek towns of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains as a whole, must be held to modify this view . Among the earliest examples of Greek work are the tunnels or emissaria which drained See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Copais in See also:

• BOEOTIA

Boeotia; these, though not strictly aqueducts, were undoubtedly the precursors of such works, consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels (iirovo,uot) with See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical shafts (*peariat), sixteen of which are still recognizable, the deepest being about 150 ft . They may be compared with that described by See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius as conveying water from See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus to Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor, Syria, . See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia and See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra . Popular See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend ascribed them to See also:

• CADMUS

Cadmus, just as See also:

• ARGOS

Argos referred the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation of its lands to Danaiis . They are undoubtedly of great antiquity .

The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and cisterns hewn in the rock, which in an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age had satisfied the small communities of Greece, had become a pressing public question by the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Tyrants, of whom See also:

• POLYCRATES

Polycrates of See also:

• SAMOS

Samos and See also:

• PEISISTRATUS, (605?–527 B.c.)

Peisistratus of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens were distinguished for their See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and enterprise in this respect . The former obtained the services of See also:

• EUPALINUS

Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for the skill with which he had carried out the works for the water-supply of See also:

• MEGARA

Megara (see Athen . Mittheil. See also:

• XXV

xxv., L900, 23) under the direction of the See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

Tyrant Theagenes (c . 625 B.c.) . At Samos the difficulty See also:

• LAY

lay in a hill which See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose between the See also:

• TOWN

town and the water source . Through this hill Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high Phoenician . and 4200 ft. long, See also:

• BUILDING

building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. broad and II ells deep . The water, flowing by an accurately reckoned declivity, and all along open to the fresh See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, and so led into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, See also:

• BATHS

baths, cloacae, &c., and ultimately passed into the See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. iii . 6o) . In Athens, under the See also:

• RULE

rule of the Peisistratids (c . 56o-510 B.C.), a similarly extensive, if less difficult, See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of works was completed to bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the inadequate supply from the springs . From See also:

• HYMETTUS (Ital. Monte Matto, hence the modern name Trello Vouni)

Hymettus were two conduits passing under the See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of the Ilissus, most of the course being cut in the rock .

See also:

• PENTELICUS (Bpr.Anvvbs, or Ilevee LKOv opoc from the deme HEveiXn; mod. Mendeli)

Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied another conduit, which can still be traced from the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of 13o-16o ft.; the See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still preserved is about sixty . Tributary channels conveyed into the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main stream the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the See also:

• DISTRICT

district through which it passed . Outside Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which the water was distributed by a ramification of underground channels throughout the city . These latter channels vary in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, being partly See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, partly square, and generally walled with See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone; the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief one is sufficiently large for two men to pass in it . The precise location of the reservoir depends on the value of Dr Wilhelm Dorpfeld's theory as to the site of the Enneacrunus of See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides and See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias (see ATHENS: See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

Topography and Antiquity) . DSrpfeld places it See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct which passed under the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre of See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus and on towards the Ilissus (see See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map under ATHENS) . Others have placed it south of the Olympieum in the Ilissus bed . Beside these works water was brought from Pentelicus in an underground conduit begun by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian and completed by See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus See also:

• PIUS

Pius . This aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in 1869 . In See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, the works by which See also:

• EMPEDOCLES (c. 490–430 B.C.)

Empedocles, it is said, brought the water into the town of See also:

• SELINUS (EeXsvoiis)

Selinus, are no longer visible; but it is probable that, like those of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels and pipes laid under the ground . Syracuse was sup-plied by two aqueducts, one of which the Athenians destroyed (Thuc. vi. See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo) . One was fed by an affluent (the mod .

Buttigliara) of the Anapus (mod . Anapo); it carried the water up to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and thence down to the city and finally into the harbour . The other also ascends to the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, and then proceeds along the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . Its course is marked by rectangular shafts (spiragli) at the bottom of which water is still visible . An example of what appears to have been the earliest form of aqueduct in Greece was discovered in the island of See also:

• COS
• COS, or STANKO (Ital. Stanchio, Turk. Islan-keui, by corruption from Etc rav KW)

Cos beside the fountain Burinna (mod . Fountain of See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates) on See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Oromedon . It consists of a See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell-shaped chamber, built under-ground in the hill-See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, to receive the water of the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring and keep it cool; a See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft from the top of the chamber supplied fresh air . From this reservoir the water was led by a subterranean channel, 114 ft. long and 61 ft. high . (J . M . M.) In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers have enlarged on the greatness of the latter as an example of Roman . Roman contempt for natural obstacles, or even of Roman See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the See also:

• LAWS

laws of nature .

Now, in the first place, the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans were not unacquainted with the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law that water finds its own level (see See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, Hist . Nat. xxxi . 57, " subit altitudinem exortus sui "), and took full See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of it in the construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of the upper floors of houses . That they built aqueducts across valleys in preference to carrying pipes underground was due simply to See also:

• ECONOMY

economy . Pipes had to be made of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead which was weak, or of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze which was expensive; and the Romans were not sufficiently See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert in the casting of large pipes which would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole course of a great aqueduct . Secondly, the water was so extremely hard that it was important that the channels should be readily accessible for repair as well as for the detection of leak-age.l Moreover, as we shall see, the Roman aqueducts did not, in fact, preserve a straight Iine regardless of the configuration of the country . A striking example is the aqueduct of Nemausus (See also:

• NIMES
• NIMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia)

Nimes), the springs of which are some to m. from the town, though the actual distance traversed is about 25 . Other devices, such as changing the level and then modifying the slope, and siphon arrangements of various kinds, were adopted (as in the aqueduct at See also:

• ASPENDUS (mod. Balkis Kale , or, more anciently in the native language, ESTVEDYS (whence the adjective Estvedijys on coins)

Aspendus) . Sextus See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (c. A.D. 40-103)

Frontinus, appointed See also:

• CURATOR (Lat. for " one who takes care," curare, to take care of)

curator aquarum in A.D . 97, mentions in his See also:

• TREATISE

treatise de aquaeductibus urbis Romae (on the aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use in his time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow his measurements) . These are: (I) AQUA See also:

• APPIA, VIA

APPIA, which took its rise between the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina, and measured from its source to the Porta Trigemina 11 Roman See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles, of which all but about 300 ft. were below ground . It appears to have been the first important enterprise of the kind at Rome, and was the work of the See also:

• CENSOR (from Lat. censere, assess, estimate; in Gr. rt s ris)

censor Appius See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius Caecus, from whom it derived its name .

The date of its construction was 312 B.C . (2) ANIO VETUS, constructed in 272—269 B.C. by the censor Manius Curius See also:

• DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS

Dentatus . From its source near See also:

• TIVOLI (anc. Tibur, q.v.)

Tivoli, on the See also:

• LEFT

left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,2 of which only 'Too ft. was above ground . At the distance of 2 M. from Rome (Frontinus, i . 21), it parted into two courses, one of which led to the horti Asiniani, and was thence distributed; while the other (rectus ductus) led by the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• SPES

Spes to the Porta Esquilina . (3) AQUA MARCIA, reconstructed in 1869-187o under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after Pius IX . (though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct takes an entirely different course), rising on the left side of the Via See also:

• VALERIA, VIA

Valeria near the 36th milestone . It traversed 6i 4 m., of which 544 were underground, and for the remaining distance was carried partly on substructions and partly on arches . It was the work of the See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus Marcius Rex (144-140 B.C.), not of Ancus Marcius, the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Rome, as Pliny (N.H. xxxi . 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor . Its waters were celebrated for their coolness and excellent quality . Its See also:

• VOLUME

volume was largely increased by See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus, who added to it the Aqua See also:

• AUGUSTA

Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus; Septimus See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus, See also:

• CARACALLA (or CARACALLUS), MARCUS A U R E L I U S ANTONINUS (186-217)

Caracalla and See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian .

(4) AQUA TEPULA, from its source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district of See also:

• TUSCULUM

Tusculum, to Rome, was some 11 m. in length . The first portion of its course must have been almost entirely subterranean and is not now traceable . For the last 62 m. it ran on the same series of arches that carried the Aqua Marcia, but at a higher level . It was the work of the censors Cn . Servilius See also:

• CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS

Caepio and L . See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius See also:

• LONGINUS, CASSIUS (c. A.D. 213-273)

Longinus, and was completed in the See also:

• YEAR

year 125 B.C . Its water is warm (about 63 Fahr.) and not of the best quality . (5) The AQUA JULIA, from a source 2 M. from that of the Tepula, joined its course at the xoth milestone of the Via See also:

• LATINA, VIA

Latina . The combined stream, after a distance of 4 m., was received in a reservoir, and then once more divided into two channels . The entire length of the Julia was 151 m . It was constructed in the year 33 B.C. by M . Vipsanius See also:

• AGRIPPA
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, I
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, II
• AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS

Agrippa, who also built the (6) AQUA See also:

• VIRGO (" the Virgin ")

VIRGO which, from its origin at a copious spring in a See also:

• MARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare)
• MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258)
• MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882)
• MARSH, HERBERT (1757–1839)
• MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713)
• MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899)

marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 M. in length; it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above ground .

It was begun in the year 33 B.C. and was celebrated for the excellence of its waters . It was restored to use by Pius V. in 1570 . (7) AQUA ALSIETINA Or AUGUSTA, the source of which is the Lacus Alsietinus (mod . Lago di Martignano), to the north of Rome, was over 22 M. in length, of which 358 paces were on arches . It was the work of Augustus, probably with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of furnishing water for his naumachia (a basin for sham See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes . Its course is 1 There have been found at Caerwent, in See also:

• MONMOUTHSHIRE

Monmouthshire, clear traces of wooden pipes (See also:

• INTERNAL

internal diameter about 2 in.) which must have carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply from the surrounding hills . Some patches of lead also have been found obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had burst (see Archaeologia, 1908) . 2 This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the cippi (Lanciani, See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn., 1899, 38) . unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription See also:

• RELATING

relating to it is given in Notizie d . Scavi (1887), p . 182 .

(8, 9) The AQUA CLAUDIA and ANIO Novus were two aqueducts begun by Caligula in A.D . 38 and completed by Claudius in A.D . 52 . The springs of the former belonged to the same See also:

• GROUP

group as those of the Marc* and were situated near the 38th milestone of the Via Sublacensis, not far from its divergence from the Via Valeria, while the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original intake of the latter from the See also:

• RIVER

river Anio was 4 M. farther along the same road . As the water was thick it was collected in a purifying tank, and 4 M. below, a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch stream, the Rivus Herculaneus, was added to it . According to Frontinus, over to m. of the course of the Claudia and nearly 92 of that of the Anio Novus were above ground . Seven miles out of Rome they See also:

• UNITED

united and ran from that point into Rome, following a natural See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus formed by a See also:

• LAVA

lava stream from the See also:

• ALBAN, SAINT

Alban See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano, upon a line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous features of the Campagna . The original inscription of Claudius (A.D . 52) on the Porta See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus crossed the Via See also:

• PRAENESTINA, VIA

Praenestina and the Via See also:

• LABICANA, VIA

Labicana, gives the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the Anio Novus as 62 m . Frontinus, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, gives 46.4o6 m . (i.e. about 43 See also:

• ENGLISH

English miles) and 58.700 m . (i.e. about 54 English miles) .

Albertini (Melangesdel'EcoleFrancaise, 1906, 305) explains the difference as due to the fact that Frontinus was calculating the length of the Claudia from the farthest spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus from the new intake constructed by See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan in one of the three lakes constructed by See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero for the adornment of his See also:

• VILLA

villa above See also:

• SUBIACO (anc. Sublaqueum)

Subiaco . Two other See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record restorations by See also:

• VESPASIAN

Vespasian in A.D . 70, and by Titus in A.D . 80 . That the aqueducts should be spoken of as vetustate dila psi so soon after their construction is not a little surprising, and may be attributed either to hasty construction in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to complete them by a fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who under Claudius were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line of arches intended originally in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability for the Aqua Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as well . The See also:

• SIZE

size of the channels (specus) of the principal aqueducts varies considerably at different points of their course . The Anio Novus has the largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide and 9 ft. high to the top of the roof, which is pointed . They are lined with hard See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement (See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus signinum) containing fragments of broken See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick . Those aqueducts of which the most conspicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome are the four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took their supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia and the Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, in the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco . Those of the Anio Vetus, which travelled at a considerably lower level than the other three, are the least conspicuous, while the Claudia and Anio Novus as a rule kept See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together, the latter at the highest level of all . The ruins of See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges and substructions iri the Anio valley down to Tivoli, though comparatively little known, are of great importance . In all the aqueducts the original construction of the bridges was in opus quadratum (masonry), while the substructions are in brick-faced See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete; but the bridges are as a rule strengthened (and often several times) with See also:

• REIN

rein-forcing walls of concrete faced with opus reticulatum or. brick-work .

Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley, the aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass through some very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano, alternately See also:

• CROSSING

crossing ravines, some of which are as much as 300 ft. deep, and tunnelling through hills.' The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders what See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments were employed—probably the so-called chorobates, an improvement upon the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary water-level (See also:

• VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius viii . 6), though this would be slow and complicated . The See also:

• OPTICAL

optical properties of See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass lenses were, however, unknown to ' The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by the cutting of a tunnel 3 M. long under the See also:

• MONTE

Monte Affliano in the time of See also:

• DOMITIAN (Thus FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS)

Domitian (T . See also:

• ASHBY, TURNER (1824-1862)

Ashby, in Papers of the See also:

• BRITISH

British School at Rome, iii, 133).the ancients, and the dioptra, or See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle measure, was considered by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the chorobates for the planning of aqueducts (cf . E . Hultsch, s.v. in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie) . The aqueducts as a rule were carried on See also:

• SEPARATE

separate bridges, though all four united at the See also:

• PONTE (Ital. for " bridge ")

Ponte Lupo, a huge structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found necessary in course of time, See also:

• MEASURES

measures 105 ft. in height, 5o8 in length, and 46 in thickness at the bottom, without including the buttresses . From Gallicano onwards the course of these four aqueducts follows the lower slopes of the Alban Hills . Previous writers on the subject have been unable to determine their course, which is largely subterranean; but it can be followed step by step with the indications given by the presence of the calcareous See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit which was thrown out at the putei or shafts (which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as were the cippi) when the specus was cleaned; and remains of bridges, though less important, owing to the less difficult See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the country, are not entirely absent (cf. the works by T . Ashby cited in bibliography) ? Near the 7th milestone of the Via Latina at Le Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus emerge from their underground course, and run into Rome upon the long series of arches already mentioned, passing over the Porta Maggiore . The Claudia sent off an important branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caelian to the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine, but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination .

A mile farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual slope of the ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches, which were also used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua Julia (of the two latter, before their junction with the Marcia, no remains exist above ground, but inscribed cippi of the last named and its underground channel have been found at Le Capanelle, and cippi also close to its springs, which are a little way above See also:

• GROTTAFERRATA

Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli) . The Anio Vetus followed the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at the early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period at which it was constructed) until the immediate neighbourhood of Rome, near the locality known as "ad Spem veterem " (from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known) close to the Porta Maggiore . At this point, besides the aqueducts named, the Aqua Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the city, and received an important branch, the Appia Augusta . No remains of either have been discovered outside the city . The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here, though its channel, which lay at some See also:

• DEPTH

depth below ground, has not been discovered . Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts exist in the district between the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana . Of the two aqueducts on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber, the Alsietina, as we have said, has no remains at all, while those of the Traiana are not of great importance . The line of the aqueducts was marked by cippi, inscribed (in the case of the Anio Vetus, Marcia, .Tepula, Julia and Virgo—those of the Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of the Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, the distance from the next See also:

• CIPPUS (Lat. for a " post " or " stake ")

cippus (generally 240 ft.) and the number, counting from Rome (not from the springs) . These boundary stones were erected in pairs, to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark off the See also:

• STRIP

strip of See also:

• LAND

land 30 ft. in width reserved for the aqueduct, and for the road or path which generally followed it . The shafts (putei) often stood, but not necessarily, at the same points as the cippi . To these nine must be added the two following, constructed after Frontinus's time: (1o) AQUA TRAIANA, from springs to the north-west of the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di See also:

• BRACCIANO

Bracciano), constructed by Trajan in A.D . 109, about 362 English miles in length .

It was restored by See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul V. in 1611, who made use of and largely transformed the remains of the ancient aqueduct; he allowed some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into the channel, and it is thus no longer used for drinking . (II) AQUA ALEXANDRINA, 2 About 3 M. south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of this point the presence of large quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual traces can be seen . rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana, the work of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Severus (A.D . 226) . The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice, constructed by See also:

• SIXTUS

Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter is mainly subterranean and not identical with that of the former . It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed . See also:

• PROCOPIUS

Procopius speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues mention others), but this number includes branch conduits . All the aqueducts ended in the city in huge castella or reservoirs for the purpose of See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution . Vitruvius recommends the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of these into three parts—one for the supply of fountains, &c,, one for the public baths and one for private consumers . In the Piazza See also:

• VITTORIO

Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to be seen the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for the Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan-Hulsen, 7'opographie, i . 3350) . Besides these main castella there were also many minor castella in various parts of the city for sub-distribution .

To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed in the city, filtering and settling tanks (piscinae limariae) were built outside the walls . These piscinae were covered in with a vaulted roof, and were sometimes on a very large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, as in the example still preserved at See also:

• FERMO (anc. 1%irmum Picenum)

Fermo, which consists of two stories, each having three oblong basins communicating with each other; or the See also:

• PISCINA

Piscina Mirabilis at Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted roof, supported on See also:

• FORTY

forty-eight pillars and perforated to permit the See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of foul air . Two stairs lead by forty steps to the bottom of the reservoir . In the middle of the basin is a sinking to collect the deposit of the water . The walls and pillars are coated with a See also:

• STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece, patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock)

stucco so hard as to resist a See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool . The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors of them; of the four aqueducts built during this period, three are the work of censors, one (the Marcia) of a praetor . Under the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire this task devolved on See also:

• SPECIAL

special officials styled Curatores Aquarum, instituted by Augustus, who, as he himself says, " ri 'os aquarum omnium refecit " (inscription on the See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via See also:

• TIBURTINA, VIA

Tiburtina) . (T . As.) Among the aqueducts outside See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, constructed in Roman times and existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct at Nimes (Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius Agrippa in the time of Augustus, which rose to 16o ft . The See also:

• PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524–1606)

Pont du See also:

• GARD

Gard, as this aqueduct is now called, consists of three tiers of arches across the valley of the river Gardon . In the lowest tier are six arches, of which one has a span of 75 ft., the others each 6o ft . In the second tier are eleven arches, each with a span of 75 ft .

In the third tier are See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-five smaller arches which carried the specus . As a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge, the Pont du Gard has no See also:

• RIVAL

rival for lightness and boldness of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design among the existing remains of works of this class carried out in Roman times . (2) The aqueduct bridges at See also:

• SEGOVIA

Segovia (Merckel, Ingenieurtechnik, pp . 566-568), See also:

• TARRAGONA
• TARRAGONA (anc. Tarraco)

Tarragona (ibid . 56; 566), and See also:

• MERIDA
• MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania)

Merida in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, the former being 2400 ft. long, with 109 arches of See also:

• FINE

fine masonry, in two tiers, and reaching the height of 102 ft . The bridge at Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high . (3) At See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz are the ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about See also:

• HALF

half of which is carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (Archaeological See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal, xlvii., 1890, pp . 211-214) . This aqueduct was built by the XIVth See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion and was for the use of the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp, not for the townspeople . For the similar aqueduct at See also:

• LUYNES

Luynes see Arch . Journ. xlv . (1888), pp .

235-237 . Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be seen in See also:

• DACIA

Dacia, See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa (see especially under See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

CARTHAGE), Greece and Asia Minor . (4) The aqueduct at See also:

• JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ETIENNE DE (1764-1846)

Jouy-aux-Arches, near See also:

• METZ

Metz, which originally extended across the Moselle, here very broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent water from Gorze . From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn stone, and sufficiently spacious for a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to walk in them up-right . Similar channels received the water after it had crossed the Moselle by this bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from Metz, and conveyed it to the city . The bridge consisted of onlyone See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of arches nearly 6o ft. high . The middle arches have given way under the force of the water, but the others are still perfectly solid . This aqueduct is probably to be attributed to the latter half of the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D . It is for the use of the town; hence its size . (5) One of the principal bridges of the aqueduct of See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch in Syria is 70o ft. long, and at the deepest point 200 ft. high . The lower See also:

• PART

part consists almost entirely of solid See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall, and the upper part of a series of arches with very massive pillars . The masonry and design are See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude .

The water supply was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from several springs at a place called See also:

• BEIT, ALFRED (1853-1906)

Beit el-Ma (anc . See also:

• DAPHNE

Daphne) about 4 or 5 M. from Antioch . From these separate springs the water was conducted by channels of hewn stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which traversed the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the distance, being carried across streams and valleys by means of arches or bridges . (6) At the village of Moris, about an See also:

• HOUR

hour's distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large hewn blocks of See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, and connected by means of three rows of arches, of which the uppermost is of brick . The bridge extended about Soo ft. in length, and at the deepest point was from 7o to 8o ft. high . Judged by the masonry and the graceful design, it has been thought to be a work of the age of Augustus . Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson Lamarousia, an hour's distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika . The whole subject of the ancient and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval aqueducts of Asia Minor has been considered in great detail by G . See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber (" Wasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Stadten," in the Jahrbuch See also:

• DES

des kaiserl. See also:

• DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873)

deutsch. archtiolog . Instit . Asia Minor . xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in Jahrbuch, 1892, 1899) .

The aqueducts examined are those at See also:

• PERGAMUM, or PERGAMTS (mod. Bergama)

Pergamum, See also:

• LAODICEA
• LAODICEA, SYNOD OF

Laodicea and See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

Metropolis (See also:

• IONIA

Ionia), See also:

• TRALLES (mod. Giizel Hisser)

Tralles (See also:

• AIDIN

Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias, Trapezopolis, See also:

• HIERAPOLIS

Hierapolis, See also:

• APAMEA

Apamea Cibotus and Antioch in See also:

• PISIDIA

Pisidia . In most of these cases it is difficult of even impossible to decide whether the work is Hellenistic or Roman; to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, e.g. those at Metropolis, Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, e.g. those at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia . Since, there-fore, a detailed description of these remains does not provide material for any satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive features of Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be sufficient here to mention a few of the more interesting discoveries . In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the Astraeus consisted of an See also:

• ARCADE

arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high . Nearer to the town in the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with brick walls . It is clear that the water could not have served more than the lower parts of the town, the acropolis of which is nearly 200 ft. above the level of the conduit . In the case of Tralles the water was supplied by a high pressure conduit and distributed from the acropolis, where there are the remains of a basin (13 ft. by ro) arched over with brick . The ancient aqueduct is to be distinguished from a later, probably See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine, canal conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions, crossed by the old aqueduct . Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct only a few See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the aqueduct which was built by Carminius in the and century A.D. to supply the community when reinforced by the amalgamation of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its basins are still distinguish-able, but the two water-towers which are still See also:

• STANDING

standing belong to a later Byzantine structure . Trapezopolis was supplied from Mt . Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes have been found built into a low wall which varies from 31 to about 5 ft. wide . Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe to Antioch in Pisidia, nineteen are still standing .

Each arch consists of eleven keystones; no cement was used . The conduit, which was high-pressure, ends in a distributing See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower and reservoir . (J . M . M.) II . Medieval.—The aqueduct near See also:

• SPOLETO (anc. Spoletium)

Spoleto, which now serves also as a bridge, is deserving of See also:

• NOTICE

notice as an early instance of the use of the pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th century . It has ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their design and the See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

airy lightness of their proportions, each over 66 ft. in span, and about 300 ft. in height . The aqueduct of See also:

• PYRGOS

Pyrgos, near See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, is a remarkable example of works of this class carried out in the later times of the Roman empire, and consisted of two branches . Constanu- From this circumstance it was called Egri Kemer nople . (" the Crooked Aqueduct "), to distinguish it from the Long Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters . One of the branches extends 67o ft. in length, and is io6 ft. in height at the deepest part . It is composed of three tiers of arches, those in each row increasing in width from the bottom to the top—an arrangement very properly introduced with the view of saving materials without diminishing the strength of the work .

The two upper rows consisted of arches of semicircles, the lower of See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to the belief that the date of the structure is about the loth century . The breadth of the building at the See also:

• BASE

base was 21 ft., and it diminished with a See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• BATTER

batter on each side to the top, where it was only 11 ft . The base also was protected by strong buttresses or counterforts, erected against each of the pillars . The other branch of the aqueduct was 300 ft. long, and consisted of twelve semicircular arches . This aqueduct serves to- convey to Constantinople the waters of the valley of Belgrad, one of the principal sources from which the city is supplied . These are situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan Mountains, which overhangs the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea . The water rises about 15 M. from the city, and between 3 and 4 M. west of the village of Belgrad, in three sources, which run in three deep and very confined valleys . These unite a little below the village, and then are collected into a large reservoir . After flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters are augmented by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of stone to the Crooked Aqueduct . From this they are conveyed to another which is the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various accessions, into a third, termed the Aqueduct of Justinian . From this they enter a vaulted conduit, which skirts the hills on the left side of the valley, and crosses a broad valley 2 M. below the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of an aqueduct, with two tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction . The conduit then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches the reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls of the city .

From this the water is conducted to the various quarters of the city, and also to the reservoir of St See also:

• SOPHIA (1630-1714)

Sophia, which supplies the seraglio of the See also:

• GRAND

grand signior . The Long Aqueduct (Usun Kemer) is more imposing by its extent than the Crooked one, but is far inferior in the regularity of design and disposition of the materials . It is evidently a work of the See also:

• TURKS

Turks . It consists of two tiers of arches, the lower being forty-eight in number, and the upper fifty . The whole length was about 2200 ft., and the height 8o ft . The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer or " See also:

• HANGING

Hanging Aqueduct ") is without doubt one of the finest monuments which remain to us of the middle ages . It consists of two tiers of large pointed arches, pierced transversely . Those of the lower See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story have 55 ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft . The piers are supported by strong buttresses, and at different heights they have little arches passing through them laterally, which relieve the deadness of the solid See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar . The length of this aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 1o8 ft . This aqueduct has been attributed both to See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine I. and to Justinian, the latter being perhaps the more probable . Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied from several other principal sources, one of which took its rise on the heights of the same mountains, 3 or 4 M. east of Belgrad .

This was conveyed in a similar manner by an arched channel elevated, when it was necessary, on aqueduct bridges, till it reached the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern parts of the city . It was in the course of this aqueduct that the contrivance of the souterasi or See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic obelisks, described by See also:

• ANDREOSSY

Andreossy (on his voyage to the Black Sea, the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Thracian See also:

• BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Boo-iopos=ox-ford, tradition-ally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings)

Bosporus), was constructed, which excited some See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, as being an improvement on the method of conducting water by aqueduct bridges . " The souterasi,"says Andreossy, " are masses of masonry, having generally the form of a truncated See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid or an See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• OBELISK (Gr. b/3EXivrcos, diminutive of OEMs, a spit)

obelisk . To form a conduit with souterasi, we choose sources of water, the level of which is several feet higher than the reservoir by which it is to be distributed over the city . We bring the water from its sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until we come to the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of a valley or broken ground . We there raise on each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes of determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite sides of the building . These pipes are disjoined at the upper part of the obelisk, which forms a sort of basin, with which the pipes are connected . The one permits the water to rise to the level from whence it had descended; by the other, the water descends from this level to the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the souterasi, where it enters another canal underground, which conducts it to a second and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends, as at the last station . Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it in different directions by orifices of which the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge is known." Again he says, " it requires but little attention to perceive that this system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons open at their upper part, and communicating with each other . The expense of a conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth of that of an aqueduct with arcades." There seems to be really no advantage in these pyramids, further than as they serve the purpose of discharging the air which collects in the pipes . They are in themselves an evident obstruction, and the water would flow more freely without any interruption of the kind . In regard to the leaden pipes, again, they would have required, with so little See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head pressure as is stated, to be used of very extra-ordinary dimensions to pass the same quantity of water as was discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted under CONSTANTINOPLE) .

The other principal source from which Constantinople is supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8 m. west of the town, from which it is conducted by conduits and arches, in the same manner as the others . The supply drawn from all these sources, as detailed by Andreossy, amounted to 400,000 cubic ft. per See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . (A . S . M.; J . M . M.) ducts relied upon the cost of the aqueduct becomes one of the sup supply. most important features in the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, and the quantity of water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay . Hence it is that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility for this See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure . In Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain it has in all large schemes become a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition that, when a town is permitted to go outside its own See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of a certain number of gallons per day per head of its own in-habitants, allow See also:

• LOCAL

local authorities, any part of whose district is within a certain number of miles of the aqueduct, to take a supply on reasonable terms . The first case in which this principle was adopted on a large scale was the Thirlmere scheme sanctioned by See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament in 1879, for augmenting the supply of See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester . The previous supply was derived from a source only about 15 m. distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron pipes, was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding reservoirs . But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service reservoir near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was more than 90 % of the See also:

• TOTAL

total cost .

As a supply of about 50,000,000 gallons a day is available the outlay was justifiable, and the water is in fact very cheaply obtained . See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day from the river See also:

• VYRNWY (Fyrnwy)

Vyrnwy in North See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, 68 m. distant, and See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham has constructed works for impounding water in See also:

• RADNORSHIRE (Sir Faesyfed)

Radnorshire, and conveying it a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000 gallons a day . In the year 1899 an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of parliament was passed authorizing the towns of See also:

• DERBY
• DERBY, EARLS OF

Derby, See also:

• LEICESTER
• LEICESTER, EARLS OF
• LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL
• LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626)
• LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842)

Leicester, See also:

• SHEFFIELD
• SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, 1ST EARL

Sheffield and Notting-See also:

• HAM

ham, jointly to obtain a supply of water from the head waters. of the river See also:

• DERWENT (Celtic Dwr-gent, clear water)

Derwent in See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire . Leicester is 6o m. distant from this source, and its See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of the supply is about ro,0oo,000 gallons a day . For more than half the distance, however, the aqueduct is See also:

• COMMON

common to Derby and See also:

• NOTTINGHAM
• NOTTINGHAM, CHARLES HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF1 (1536-1624)
• NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF

Nottingham, which together are entitled to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to Leicester is correspondingly reduced . These are the most important cases of long aqueducts in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, and all are subsequent to 1879 . It is obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction of the aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must be 'exercised in order that the supply upon which such large populations depend may not be interrupted, and that the country through which such large volumes of water are conveyed may not be flooded in consequence of the failure of any of the works . Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England . The one is built of concrete, See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron (or, in special circumstances, See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel) pipes . In the former type the water surface coincides with the hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are those of an artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and termination may be economically distributed . This condition requires that the ground in which the work is built shall be at the proper See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the aqueduct must be carried on a substructure built up to the required level . Such large structures are, however, extremely expensive, and require elaborate devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and contraction of the masonry due to changes of temperature .

They are now only used where their length is very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, as in cases where See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain streams have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass, wherever practicable, under the streams . Where wide valleys interrupt the course of the built aqueduct, or where the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of high ground prevents the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of that type at any part of the route, the cast-iron pipes hereafter referred to are used . The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover, the latter term denoting the See also:

• PROCESS

process of cutting the See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench, building the floor, side-walls, and roof, and covering as before . For works conveying water for domestic supply, the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always covered . Where, as is usually the case, the water is derived from a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of mountainous country, the tunnel work is some-times very heavy . In the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, out of the first 13 M. the length of the tunnelled portions is 8 m., the longest tunnel being 3 M. in length . Conditions of time, and the character of the rock, usually require the use of machinery for See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving, at any See also:

• RATE

rate in the case of the longer tunnels . For the comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two percussion drilling See also:

• MACHINES

machines are usually mounted on a See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage, the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power being derived from compressed air sent up the tunnel in pipes . The holes when driven are charged with ex-See also:

• PLOSIVES

plosives and fired . In the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian strata, the progress was about 13 yds. a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week at each See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, work being carried on continuously day and See also:

• NIGHT

night for six days a week . Where the character of the country through which the aqueduct passes is much the same as that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels need not be lined with concrete, &c., more than is absolutely necessary for retaining the water and supporting weak places in the rock; the floor, however, is nearly always so treated . The lining, whether in tunnel or cut-and-cover, may be either of concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete faced with brickwork .

To ensure the impermeability of work constructed with these materials is in practice somewhat difficult, and no See also:

• MATTER

matter how much care is taken by those supervising the workmen, and even by the workmen them-selves, it is impossible to See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee entire freedom from trouble in this respect . With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any neglect is certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the quality of materials, &c., a leak is sure to occur at such places (unless, indeed, the pressure of the outside water is superior and an inflow occurs) . A further cause of trouble lies in the water which flows from the strata on to the concrete, andwashes away some of the cement upon which the work depends for its watertightness, before it has time to set . For this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, the side-walls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has to be laid . Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely constructed before the next is begun, the water then having an easy exit at the leading end . Manholes, by which the aqueduct can be entered, are usually placed in the roof at convenient intervals; thus, in the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, they occur at every See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of a mile . In some parts of See also:

• AMERICA

America aqueducts are frequently constructed of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, being then termed flumes . These are probably more extensively used in See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California than in any other part of the See also:

• WORLD

world, for conveying large quantities of water ;edu agneducfs . which is required for hydraulic See also:

• MINING

mining, for irrigation, for the supply of towns and for transporting See also:

• TIMBER

timber . The flumes are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and across valleys, supported on trestles . In See also:

• FRESNO

Fresno See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county, California, there is a See also:

• FLUME (through an O. Fr. word glum, from the Lat. "lumen, a river)

flume 52 M. in length for transporting timber from the Sierra See also:

• NEVADA
• NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-clad " or " snowy land," originally applied to a snow-capped mountain range on the Pacific slope)

Nevada Mountains to the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain below; it has a rectangular V-shaped See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, 3 ft . 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in. deep vertically .

The boards which form the sides are 14 in. thick, and some of the trestlework is 130 ft. high . The steepest grade occurs where there is a fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft . About 9,000,000 ft. of timber were used in the construction . At See also:

• SAN

San Diego there is a flume 35 M. long for irrigation and domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per second; it has 315 trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across Los Coches Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8 tunnels, and the cost was $9oo,000 . The great See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench flume of the Highline canal, See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and 7 ft. deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge 1184 ft. per second . As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete, &c., can only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated to carry it, and where the quantity of water to be conveyed makes it more economical than piping . Where 1 the falling contour is interrupted by valleys too wide piping for a masonry structure above the surface of the ground, the detached portions of the built aqueduct must be connected by rows of pipes laid beneath, and following the main undulations of, the surface . In such cases the built aqueduct terminates in a chamber of sufficient size to enclose the mouths of the several pipes, which, thus charged, carry the water under the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the farther hillside from which the built aqueduct again carries on the supply . These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon, the water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the other under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of gravity, and the pressure of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere being no See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the case . The pipes are almost always made of cast-iron, except in such cases as the lower part of some siphons, where the pressure is very great, or where they are for use abroad, when considerations of See also:

• WEIGHT

weight are of importance, and when they are made of rolled steel with riveted or welded seams . It is frequently necessary to lay them in deep cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better adapted for sustaining a heavy weight of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth than the thinner steel, though the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure . Mr D .

See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke (Trans . Am . See also:

• SOC

Soc . C.E. vol. xxxviii. p . 93) gives some particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 M. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter, varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in . After a length of 9 M. had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the See also:

• CROWN

crown of the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying from 1 in. to 4 in . Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion than those made of cast-iron, and as the See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal attacked is much thinner the strength is more seriously reduced . These considerations have prevented any See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from cast-iron to steel . Mr . Clemens See also:

• HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA (1750-1848)
• HERSCHEL, SIR F
• HERSCHEL, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1738-1822)
• HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM, BART

Herschel has made some interesting remarks (Prot . Inst . C.E. vol. cxv. p .

162) as to the circumstances in which steel Construction . Heronry with earth, the surface of the ground being restored aqueducts . pipes have been found preferable to cast-iron . He says that it had been demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains, on the Pacific slope . This is due to the absence of See also:

• COAL

coal and iron ore in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron pipes compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength . The works of the East See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey Water See also:

• COMPANY

Company for the supply of See also:

• NEWARK
• NEWARK (NEWARK-UPON-TRENT)
• NEWARK, DAVID LESLIE, LORD (1601-1682)

Newark, N.J include a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and 21 M. long . This conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due to the hydraulic gradient, in contradistinction to that which would be due to the hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the weight and cost of the pipes . For the supply of See also:

• ROCHESTER
• ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT, 2ND EARL
• ROCHESTER, LAWRENCE HYDE, EARL OF (1641-1711)

Rochester, N.Y., there is a riveted steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 M. long; and for See also:

• ALLEGHENY

Allegheny City, See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ;t. in diameter and nearly to m. long . The works for bringing the water from La See also:

• VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901)

Vigne and See also:

• VERNEUIL
• VERNEUIL, PHILLIPPE EDOUARD POULLETIER DE (180 1873)

Verneuil to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in diameter between St See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

Cloud and Paris . Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low . In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 18o lb on the square See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter and i;-, in. thick . These large pipes, which are usually made in lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for receiving the spigot end of the next pipe, the See also:

• ANNULAR, ANNULATE

annular space being run with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of the pipe by a spring See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring subsequently removed; the surface of the lead is then caulked all round the outside of the pipe .

A wrought-iron ring is sometimes shrunk on the See also:

• OUTER

outer rim of the socket, previously turned to receive it, in order to strengthen it against the wedging See also:

• ACTION

action of the caulking tool . Sometimes the pipes are cast as plain tubes and joined with See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double collars, which are run with lead as in the last case . The reason for adopting the latter type is that the stresses set up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal cooling are thereby avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack under pressure being at the back of the socket . The method of turning and boring a portion, slightly tapered, of spigot and socket so as to ensure a watertight junction by close annular metallic See also:

• CON

con-tact, is not suitable for large pipes, though very convenient for smaller diameters in even ground . Spherical See also:

• JOINTS

joints are sometimes used where a line of main has to be laid under a large river or See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary, and where, therefore, the pipes must be jointed before being lowered into the previously dredged trench . This was the case at the Willamette river, See also:

• PORTLAND
• PORTLAND, EARL OF
• PORTLAND, ISLE OF
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK

Portland, See also:

• OREGON

Oregon, where a length of 2000 ft. was required . The pipes are of cast-iron 28 in. in diameter, 12 in. thick, and 17 ft. long . The spigots were turned to a spherical surface of 20 in. See also:

• RADIUS

radius outside, the inside of the sockets being of u radius a in. greater . After the insertion of the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep, turned inside to correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter, the annular space then being run with lead . These pipes were laid on an inclined See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river and the other on a See also:

• BARGE (Med. Lat. barca, possibly connected with Lat. baris, Gr. flaps, a boat used on the Nile)

barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes were jointed the barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the pipes into the trench (Trans . Am . Soc .

C . E. vol. xxxiii. p . 257) . As may be conjectured from the pressure which they have to stand, very great care has to be taken in the manufacture and handling of cast-iron pipes of large diameter, a care which must be unfailing from the time of casting until they are jointed in their final position in the ground . They are cast vertically, socket downwards, so that the densest metal may be at the weakest part, and it is advisable to allow an extra head of metal of about 12 in., which is subsequently cut off in a See also:

• LATHE

lathe . An inspector representing the purchaser watches every detail of the manufacture, and if, after being measured in every part and weighed, they are found satisfactory they are proved with internal fluid pressure, oil being preferable to water for this purpose . While under pressure, they are rapped from end to end with a hand See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer of about 5 lb in weight, in order to discover defects . The wrought-iron rings are then,. if required, shrunk on to the sockets, and the pipes, after being made hot in a See also:

• STOVE

stove, are dipped vertically in a See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch and oil, in order to preserve them from corrosion . All these operations are performed under cover . A record should be kept of the history of the pipe from the time it is cast to the time it is laid and jointed in the ground, giving the date, number, diameter, length, thickness, and See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose work closes the record . Such a history sometimes enables the cause (which is often very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained, the position of every pipe being recorded . Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to, suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially soft water, flowing through them .

One pipe may be found in as See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good a condition as when made, while the next may be covered with nodules of See also:

• RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust . The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the See also:

• AREA

area of the pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered by the rough surface, retards the velocity of the water . These two results, expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability of discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the diameter . Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good results, but it is better to be See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of them as long as possible . In one case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found after a period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rateof about 1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft and where the pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was diminished by 7% in ten years . An account of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of two cast-iron mains supplying See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston with water is given in the Trans . Am . Soc . C.E. vol. See also:

• XXXV

xxxv. p . 241 . These pipes, which were laid in 1877, are 48 in. in diameter and 1800 ft. long . When they were examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated that the tubercles of rust covered nearly one-third of the interior surfaces, the bottom ofithe pipe being more encrusted than the sides and top .

They had central points of See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to the iron, at which no doubt the coating was defective, and from them the tubercles spread over the surface of the surrounding coating . In this case they were removed by hand, and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the process . Cast-iron pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from a blast See also:

• FURNACE

furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these corrode the metal . Mr See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell Aitken (Proc . Inst . C.E. vol. cxv. p . 93) found in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India that cast-iron pipes buried in the See also:

• SOIL

soil rapidly corroded, owing to the presence of nitric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid secreted by bacteria which attacked the iron . The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water from the See also:

• TANSA

Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of the ground . Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been in existence sufficiently long to enable their See also:

• LIFE

life to be predicted . A main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in existence fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever . In 1867 Mr J . B .

See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year 1828, a period of thirty-nine years (Trans . Soc . Am . C.E. vol. i. p . 26) . These two instances are probably not exceptional . Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft . 6 in. of cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter . Where they are laid in deep cutting they should be partly surrounded with concrete, so that they may not be fractured by the weight of earth above them . Angles are turned by means of special See also:

• BEND

bend pipes, the curves being made of as large a radius as convenient . In the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about 12 in. long (exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets being inclined to each other at the required angle . They were made to various angles, and for any particular See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve several would be used connected by straight pipes 3 ft. long .

As special castings are nearly double the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of the regular pipes, the cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible, while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically no more impediment to the flow of water in consequence of its polygonal form, than would be the case had special bend pipes been used . In all cases of curves on a line of pipes under internal fluid pressure, there exists a resultant force tending to displace the pipes . When the curve is in a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• PLANE

plane and the pipes are buried in the ground, the side of the pipe trench offers sufficient resistance to this force . Where, however, the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a vertical plane, it is necessary to See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

anchor them in position . In the case of the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius near See also:

• BASSEIN

Bassein Creek . At this point the hydrostatic head is about 250 ft., and the engineer, Mr See also:

• CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907)

Clerke, mentions that a tendency to an outward See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the line of pipes was observed . At the siphon under Kurla Creek the curves on the approaches as originally laid down were See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp, the hydrostatic head being there about 210 ft.; here the outward movement was so marked that it was considered advisable to realign the approaches with easier curves (Proc . Inst . C.E. vol. cxv. p . 34) . In the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft., occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are 40 in. in diameter, and in descending from the bridge make See also:

• REVERSE

reverse angles of 312° . The displacing force at each of these angles amounts to 54 tons, and as the design includes five lines of pipes, it is obvious that the anchoring arrangements must be very efficient .

The steel straps used for anchoring these and all other bends were curved to See also:

• FIT

fit as closely as possible the castings to be anchored . Naturally the metal was not in perfect contact, but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of all the slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their intended purpose . At every See also:

• SUMMIT

summit on a line of pipes one or more valves must be placed in' order to allow the escape of air, and they must also be provided on long level stretches, and at changes of gradient where the depth of the point of change below the hydraulic gradient is less than that at both Methods of laying . sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit . It is better to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered . In all depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying the pipes when desired, and for letting off the sediment which accumulates at such points . Automatic valves are frequently placed at suitable distances for cutting off the supply in case of a burst . At the inlet mouth of the pipe they may depend for their action on the sudden lowering of the water (due to a burst in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw their supply, causing a See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float to sink and set the closing arrangement in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion . Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity in the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level . The water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung in the pipe at the end of a See also:

• LEVER (through O. Fr. leveour, levere, mod. levier, from Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872)

lever and weighted so as to resist the normal velocity; this lever releases a catch, and a See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door is then gradually revolved by weights until it entirely closes the pipe . Reflux valves on the ascending See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg of a siphon prevent water from flowing back in case of a burst below them; they have doors hung on hinges, opening only in the normal direction of flow . Due See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance must be made, in the amount of head allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer opposition to the flow of the water .

These large mains require most careful and gradual filling with water, and See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant attention must be given to the air-valves to see that the See also:

• GUTTA (Latin for " drop ")

gutta-percha balls do not See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge themselves in the openings . A large See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of water, having a considerable velocity, may cause a great many bursts by water-ramming, due to the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of the water at too great a See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed . In places where iron is absent and timber plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large diameter and in the most important cases, are sometimes made of wooden staves hooped with iron . A description of two of these will be found below . The Thirlmere Aqueduct is capable of conveying 50,000,000 gallons a day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Man-Thizimere. See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

chester . The total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m . of tunnels, 37 M. of cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron pipes, five rows of the latter being required . The tunnels where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are formed of concrete, and are 7 ft. in height and width, the usual thickness of the concrete being 15 in . The inclination is 20 in. per mile . The floor is flat from side to side, and the side-walls are 5 ft. high to the springing of the arch, which has a rise of 2 ft . The water from the lake is received in a circular well 65 ft. deep and 40 ft. in diameter, at the bottom of which there is a ring of See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire-See also:

• GAUZE

gauze strainers . Wherever the concrete aqueduct is intersected by valleys, cast-iron pipes are laid; in the first instance only two of the five rows 4o in. in diameter were laid, the city not requiring its supply to be augmented by more than 20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it was decided to lay a third line .

All the elaborate arrangements described above for stopping the water in case of a burst have been employed, and have perfectly fulfilled their duties in the few cases in which they have been called into action . The water is received in a service reservoir at See also:

• PRESTWICH
• PRESTWICH, SIR JOSEPH (1812-1896)

Prestwich, near Manchester, from which it is supplied to the city . The supply from this source was begun in 1894 . The total cost of the complete scheme may be taken at about £5,000,000, of which rather under £3,000,000 had been spent up to the date of the opening, at which time only one line of pipes had been laid . The Vyrnwy Aqueduct was sanctioned by parliament in 188o for the supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water vyi,flwy. obtainable being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day . A tower built in the artificial lake from which the supply is derived, contains the inlet and arrangements for straining the water . The aqueduct is 68 m. in length, and for nearly the whole distance will consist of three lines of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in diameter from 42 in. to 39 in., are now in use . As the total fall between Vyrnwy and the termination at See also:

• PRESCOT

Prescot reservoirs is about 550 ft., arrangements had to be made to ensure that no part of the aqueduct be subjected to a greater pressure than is required for the actual discharge . Balancing reservoirs have therefore been constructed at five points on the line, advantage being taken of high ground where available, so that the total pressure is broken up into sections . At one of these points, where the ground level is fro ft. below the hydraulic gradient, a circular tower is built, making a most imposing architectural feature in the landscape . At the crossing of the river See also:

• WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- )

Weaver, loo ft. wide and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes, here made of steel, were connected together laterally, floated into position, and sunk into a dredged trench prepared to receive them . Under the river See also:

• MERSEY

Mersey the pipes are carried in a tunnel, from which, during construction, the water was excluded by compressed air .

See also:

• DENVER

Denver Aqueduct.—The supply to Denver City, initiated by the Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the See also:

• PLATTE (so named, from the• French, because of its shallowness), or NEBRASKA

Platte river, rising in the Rocky Mountains . The first aqueduct Denver. constructed is rather over 20 M. in length, of which a length of 161 m. is made of wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter . The maximum pressure is that due to 185 ft. of water; the See also:

• AVERAGE

average cost of the wooden pipe was $1.36a per foot, and the capability of discharge 8,400,000 gallons a day . Within a year of the completion of the first conduit, it became evident that another of still greater capacity was required . This was completed in See also:

• APRIL

April 1893; it is 34 in. in diameter and will deliver 16,000,000 gallons a day . By increasing the head upon the first pipe, the combined discharge Is 30,000,000 gallons a day . An incident in obtaining a temporary supply, without waiting for the completion of the second pipe, was the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in diameter, crossing a stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no support other than that derived from their arched form . One end of the arch is 241 ft. above the other end, and, when filled with water, the deflection with eight men on it was only oof an inch . A somewhat similar arch, 60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it crosses a canal . See also:

• SCHUYLER, PHILIP JOHN (1733–1804)

Schuyler points out (Trans . Am . Soc .

C.E. vol. xxxi. p . 148) that the fact that the entire water supply of a city of 150,000 inhabitants is conveyed in wooden mains, is so See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical a departure from all precedents, that it is deserving of more than a passing notice . He says that it is manifestly and unreservedly successful, and has achieved an enormous saving in cost . The sum saved by the use of wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated at $I,too,000 . It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is buried in the ground in the same way as metal pipes . The edges of the staves are dressed to the radius with a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue 116 in. high on one edge of each stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next stave; its object is to ensure a close See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint when the bands are tightened up . Leaks seldom or never occur along the See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal seams, but the end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks . The shrinkage in California redwood, which had seasoned 6o to 90 days before milling, was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that formed the Z4-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a special closing stave . Metallic See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues, 4 in. deep, are inserted at the ends of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut . The bands, which are of mild steel, have a head at one end and a See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut and washer at the other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe, against which the nut and washer set . The staves forming the lower half of the pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an inside, See also:

• MOULD

mould . While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is rounded out to bring the staves out full, and the staves are carefully driven See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home on to the abutting staves .

The spacing of the bands depends on circumstances, but is about 150 bands per too ft . With low heads the limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in . The outer surface of the pipe, when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the entire surface . This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for perfect preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible to ensure its occurrence . Samples taken from pipes in use from three to nine years are quite See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound, and it is concluded that the wood will last as long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged . The bands are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at from fifteen to twenty years . Other portions of the second conduit for a length of nearly 3 M. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in. diameter, formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 21 to 3 in . So successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a large scale is sure to lead to a large development of this type of aqueduct in districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent . See also:

• PIONEER

Pioneer Aqueduct, See also:

• UTAH

Utah.—The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power Company, near the city of See also:

• OGDEN

Ogden, 35 M. north of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt Pioneer, Lake City . The storage reservoir, from which it draws Utah . its water, will cover an area of 2000 acres, and contain about 15,000 million gallons of water . The aqueduct is a pipe 6 ft. in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a distance of rather more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder, where the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel .

It is laid in a trench and covered to a depth of 3 ft . The greatest pressure on the steel pipe is 200 lb per sq. in., and the thickness varies from t to +4 in . The pipe was constructed according to the usual practice of marine See also:

• BOILER

boiler-work for high pressures, and each section, about 9 ft. long, was clipped in See also:

• ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM

asphalt for an hour . These sections were supported on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and consisting of three to six pieces of 6 x 6 in. timbers laid one on the top of the other; they were then riveted together in the ordinary way . The wooden stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western States for many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled for any but short lengths . There were thirty-two staves in the circle, 2 in. in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel rods a in. in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces . The pipe is supported at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 x 8 in. and 8 ft. long . The flow through it is 250 cubic ft. per second . The See also:

• SANTA

Santa See also:

• ANA

Ana Canal was constructed for irrigation purposes in California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second (Trans . Am . Soc . C.E. vol. xxxiii. p .

99) . The See also:

• CROSS

cross Santa Ana. section of the flumes shows an elliptical bottom and straight sides consisting of wooden staves held together by iron and steel ribs . The width and depth are each 5 ft . 6 in., the intended depth of water being 5 ft . The staves are held by T-iron supports resting on wooden sills spaced 8 ft. apart, and are compressed together by a framework . They were caulked with See also:

• OAKUM (0. Eng. dcumbe or—cecumbe, tow, literally " off-combings ")

oakum. on the top of which, to a third of the total depth, hot asphalt was run . The use of nails was altogether avoided except in parts of the framework, it being noticed that decay usually starts at See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail-holes . It was found possible to make the flume absolutely watertight, and in case of repair being necessary at any part the framework is easily taken to pieces so that new staves can be inserted . The water in the flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second . The Warm Springs, Deep, and See also:

• MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4TH EARL OF (c. 1525-1581)
• MORTON, JOHN (c. 1420-1500)
• MORTON, JOHN MADDISON (1811-1891)
• MORTON, LEVI PARSONS (1824- )
• MORTON, OLIVER PERRY (1823-1877)
• MORTON, THOMAS (1564-1659)
• MORTON, THOMAS (c. 1590-1646)

Morton canons on the line are crossed by wooden stave pipes 52 in. in diameter, See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound with round steel rods, and laid above the surface of the ground . The work is planned for two rows of pipes, each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of these one so far has been laid . The lengths of the pipes at each of the three canons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the maximum head at any place is 16o ft .

The pipes are not painted, and it has been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in case of a See also:

• BUSH

bush See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are also liable . Aqueducts of New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York.—There are three aqueducts in New York —the Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the See also:

• BRONX, THE

Bronx River Conduit New York . (1880-1885), and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893), discharging respectively 95, 28, and 302 million U.S . gallons a day; their combined delivery is therefore 425 million gallons a day . The Old Croton Aqueduct is about 41 M . In length, and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at the Harlem and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were used . The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per mile . The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height is 82 ft., and the greatest width 7 ft . 5 in.; the roof is semicircular, the floor segmental, and the sides 'See also:

• NAVE

nave a batter on the face of 2 in . per foot . The sides and invert are of concrete, faced with 4 in. of brickwork, the roof being entirely of brickwork . There is a bridge over the Harlem river 1450 ft. in length, consisting of fifteen semi- circular arches; its See also:

• SOFFIT (from Fr. soffite, Ital. soffitta, a ceiling, formed as if from su. fjictus for suff xus, Lat. suffigere, to fix underneath)

soffit is loo ft. above high water, and its cost was $963,427 .

The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct was begun in 1885, and the 'works were sufficiently advanced by the 15th of See also:

• JULY

July 1890 to allow the supply to be begun . The lengths of the various Miles . Tunnel . 29.75 Cut-and-cover 1.12 Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows 2.38 Croton Inlet to Central See also:

• PARK (Fr. part; Ital. parco; Sp. Marque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish)
• PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900)
• PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?)

Park . . 33.25 The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and that not under pressure (See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-shoe form) 23.70 m . The maximum pressure in the former is 55 lb per sq. in . The width and height of the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft . 7 in., and the diameter of the circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft . 3 in . The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the old aqueduct . The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be emptied . For 25 M. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth being at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water .

The depth of the tunnel varies from 5o to 500 ft. from the surface of the ground . Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in four cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic gradient these are closed by watertight covers . The whole of the tunnel is lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids behind the lining being filled with rubble-in-See also:

• MORTAR

mortar . The entry to the old and new aqueducts is controlled by a See also:

• GATEHOUSE

gatehouse of elaborate and massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the end of the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . The aqueduct, where it passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice . As it approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually ends in a vertical shaft 12 ft . 3 in. in diameter (where the water has a fall of 1i4 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft. below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts . The latter is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft . 6 in., and the length is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft also 12 ft . 3 in. in diameter . The depth of this shaft, measured from the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading away from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the ground, though closed by double watertight covers a little above the level of the upper tunnel . Adjoining this shaft is another shaft of equal diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out, and there is also a communication with the river above high-water level, so that the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation .

The cost of the Old Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new aqueduct is not far short of $20,000,000 . The Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge, in India, opened at the end of 1889, is the largest structure of its kind in existence . It was built to carry the water of the Lower See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges canal over the See also:

• KALI (black)

Kali Naddi, in connexion with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces . In the year 1888–1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with 2050 M. of minor distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops . The new bridge replaces one of much smaller size (five Nedra spans of 35 ft.), which was completely destroyed by a high See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood in July 1885 . It gives the river a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a waterway of 1040 sq. ft., the latter representing a discharge of 4100 cub. ft. per second . Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried on fifteen arches having a span of 6o ft . The width between the faces of the arches is 149 ft . The See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations below the river-bed have a depth of 52 ft., and the total height of the structure is 88 ft . It cost 44i lakhs of rupees, and occupied four years in building . The foundations consist of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the fifteen spans are arranged in three See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, divided by See also:

• ABUTMENT

abutment piers; the latter are founded on a double row of 12-ft. cylinders, and the intermediate piers on a single row of 20-ft. cylinders, all the cylinders being hearted with hydraulic See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime concrete filled in with skips . This aqueduct-bridge has a very fine See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, owing to its massive proportions and design .

(E . P . H.*) For modern aqueducts, see See also:

• RICKMAN, THOMAS (1776-1841)

Rickman's Life of See also:

• TELFORD, THOMAS (1757—.1834)

Telford (1838) ; Schramke's New York Croton Aqueduct; Second See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872; Report of the Aqueduct Commissioners (1887–1895), and The Water Supply of the City of New York (1896), by Wegmann; Memoires sur See also:

• LES

les eaux de Paris, presentee See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par le Prefet de la See also:

• SEINE
• SEINE (Lat. Sequana)
• SEINE, or SEAN (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. vaytivrl, a draw-net)

Seine au Conseil Municipal (1854 and 1858) ; Recherches statistiques sur les sources du bassin de la Seine, par M . Belgrand, Ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees (1854) ; " Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the Manchester Waterworks," by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898)

Frederic See also:

• BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812–1875)

Bateman, F.R,S., Engineer-in-chief, from the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (1866); The See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow Waterworks, by See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James M . See also:

• GALE
• GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678)
• GALE, THOMAS (?1636-17o2)

Gale, Member Inst . C.E . (1863 and 1864); The Report of the Royal See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission on Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence (1867 and 1868) . For accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

Societies of Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering See also:

• JOURNALS

Journals .