See also:

• ARIA (Ital. for " air ")

ARIA (Ital. for " See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air ")  , a musical See also:

• TERM

term, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the See also:

• ENGLISH

English " See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air," signifying a See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody apart from the See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony, but especially a musical See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition for a single See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice or See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument, with an See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of other voices or See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments . The See also:

• ARIA (Ital. for " air ")

aria originally See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed from the expansion of a single vocal melody. generally on the lines of what is known as binary See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form (see See also:

• SONATA (From Ital. sonare, to sound)

SONATA and SONATA FORMS) . Accordingly, while the germs of aria form may be traceable in the highest developments of folk-See also:

• SONG

song, the aria as a definite See also:

• ART

art-form could not exist before the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; because up to that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the whole organization of See also:

• MUSIC

music was based upon polyphonic principles which See also:

• LEFT

left no See also:

• ROOM

room for the development of melody for melody's See also:

• SAKE

sake . When at the beginning of the 17th century the Monodists (see HARMONY and See also:

• MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (1567-1643)

MONTEVERDE) inaugurated a new era and showed in their first experiments the enormous possibilities latent in their new art of accompanying single voices by instruments, it was natural that for many years the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere suggestiveness and variety of their experiments should suffice to retain the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of contemporary listeners, without any real See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic coherence in the See also:

• WORKS

works as wholes . But, even at the outset, mere novelty of harmony, however poignant its emotional expression, was See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt by the profounder See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the new art to be an untrustworthy See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide to progress . And Monteverde's famous lament of the deserted See also:

• ARIADNE (in Greek mythology)

Ariadne is one of many See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early examples that See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to an elementary sense of form by making the last phrase identical with the first . As instrumental music See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew, and the See also:

• MODERN

modern sense of See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key became strong and consistent, composers felt themselves more and more able to appeal to that sense of harmonically consistent melody which has asserted itself in folk-music before the See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic music may be said to have begun . The technique of See also:

• SOLO, OR SOLO WHIST

solo singers grew as rapidly as that of solo players, and composers soon found their See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief musical See also:

• INTEREST

interest in doing See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice to both . In See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727)

Hubert See also:

• PARRY (from Fr. parer, to ward off)
• PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, BART
• PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD (179o–1855)

Parry's See also:

• WORK

work, The Music of the I7th Century (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford History of Music, vol. iii.), will be found numerous illustrations of the early development of aria forms, from their first indications in Monteverde's instinctive struggles after coherence, to their See also:

• COMPLETE

complete maturity in the works of Alessandro See also:

• SCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO (1659-1725)

Scarlatti . By Scarlatti's time it was thoroughly established that the binary form of melody was that which could best be See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded into a form which should do justice both to singers and to the players who accompanied them . Thus the aria became on a small See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale the prototype of the See also:

• CONCERTO (Lat. concertus, from certare, to strive, also con-fused with concentus)

Concerto; and under that heading will accordingly be found all that need be said as to the relation between the instrumental ritornello and the material of the voice See also:

• PART

part in an aria . So far we have spoken only of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BODY

body of the aria; but the addition of a middle See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section with a da See also:

• CAPO

Capo, which constitutes the universal 18th-century da Capo form of aria, adds a very See also:

• SIMPLE

simple new principle to the essential See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme without really modifying it .

A typical aria of the Scarlatti or Handelian type is a very large melody in binary form, delivered by the voice, which expands it with florid perorations before each See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

cadence (and sometimes also with florid preludes); while See also:

• RELIEF

relief is given to the voice, further spaciousness to the form, and justice done to the accompaniment, by the addition of an instrumental ritornello containing the gist of the melody not only at the beginning and end, but also in suitable shorter forms at the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal intermediate cadences in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign keys . A smaller scheme of the same See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind in a new See also:

• GROUP

group of related keys, but generally without much new material, is then appended as a middle section after which follows the main section da Cape . The result is generally a piece of music of cpnsiderable length, in a form which cannot fail to be effective and coherent; and there is little cause for wonder in the extent to which it dominated 18th-century music . It was not, however, invariable . In the See also:

• CAVATINA (Ital. diminutive of cavata, the producing of tone from an instrument, plural cavatine)

Cavatina we find a form too small for the da Cape; and in the oratorios of See also:

• HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK (1685–1759)

Handel and the choral works of See also:

• BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN (1685–1750)
• BACH, KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL (1714-1788)

Bach we finda See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of arias in a larger form which evades the possibility of exact repetition . The aria forms are profoundly influenced by the difference between the Sonata See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and the style of Bach and Handel . But the scale of the form is inevitably small, and in any See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera an aria is hardly possible except in a situation which is a tableau rather than an See also:

• ACTION

action . Consequently there is no such difference between the form of the classical operatic aria of See also:

• MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS1 (1756–1791)

Mozart and that of the Handelian type as there is between sonata music and See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite music . The scale, however, has become too large for the da Capo, which was in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case too rigid to survive in music designed to intensify a dramatic situation instead of to distract attention from it . The necessary See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of style was so success-fully achieved that, until See also:

• WAGNER, ADOLF (1835- )
• WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864)
• WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883)

Wagner succeeded in devising music that moved absolutely pari passu with his See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, the aria remained as the central formal principle in dramatic music; and few things in artistic See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution are more interesting than the extent to which Mozart's predecessor, the See also:

• GREAT

great dramatic reformer See also:

• GLUCK

Gluck, profited by the essential resources of his pet aversion, the aria style, when he had not only purged it of what had become the stereotyped ideas of ritornellos and vocal flourishes, but animated it by the new sense of dramatic See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax to which the sonata style appealed . In modem opera the aria is almost always out of See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, and the forms in which definite melodies nowadays appear are rather those of the song in its limited sense as that of a poem in formal stanzas all set to the same music . In other words, a song in a modern opera tends to be something which would be sung even if the drama had to be performed as a See also:

• PLAY

play without music; whereas a classical aria would in non-musical drama be a soliloquy .

This can be shown by works at such opposite poles of musical and dramatic technique as Bizet's Carmen and the later works of Wagner . In Carmen the librettist has so managed that, if his work were performed as a play, almost the whole of it would have to be sung; and the one exception of musical importance is the developed soliloquy of Micaela in the third See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, which, although treated in no old-fashioned or See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace spirit by the composer, is the one thing in the opera which sounds " operatic." In the later works of Wagner those passages in which we can successfully detach complete melodies from their context have, one and all, dramatically the aspect of songs and not of soliloquies . Siegmund sings the song of See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

Spring to his See also:

• SISTER

sister-See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride; See also:

• MIME

Mime teaches Siegfried lessons of gratitude in nursery rhymes; and the whole See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the See also:

• MEISTERSINGER (Ger. for " master-singer ")

Meistersinger is a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of opportunities for song-singing . The distinctions and gradations between aria and song are of great aesthetic importance, but their history would carry us too far . The distinction is obviously of the same importance as that between dramatic and lyric See also:

• POETRY

poetry . See also:

• BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN (1770-1827)

Beethoven's See also:

• ADELAIDE
• ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999)

Adelaide is a famous example of what is called a song when it is really entirely in aria style; while the operas of Mozart and See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber naturally contain in appropriate situations many See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers which really are songs . The composers themselves generally give appropriate names . Thus Mozart, in See also:

• FIGARO

Figaro, calls " Non so piu See also:

• COCA, or CUCA (Erythroxylon coca)

coca son " an aria, because of its See also:

• FREE

free style, though Cherubino actually sings it as a song he has just invented; while " Voi the sapete," being more purely lyric, is called Canzona . The term aria form is applied,.. generally most inaccurately, to all kinds of slow cantabile instrumental music of which the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design can be traced to the operatic aria . Mozart, for example, is very fond of slow movements in large binary form without development, and this is constantly called aria-form, though the term ought certainly to be restricted to such examples as have some traits of the aria style, such as the first slow See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement in the great See also:

• SERENADE (from Ital. serenata, Lat. serenus, bright; the Italian term being applied, partly by confusion with serus, late, and partly through the use of Serena—cf. Gr. ve?i7vri—as an epithet for the moon, to a form of courting music played at night in the

serenade in B See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat . At all events, until writers on music have agreed to give the term some more accurate use, it is as well to avoid it and its cognate version, Lied form, altogether in speaking of instrumental music . The air or aria in a suite is a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short binary movement in a flowing See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm in See also:

• COMMON

common or duple time and by no means of the broadly tunelike quality which its name would seem to imply .

(D . F .