ARMS AND See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

ARMOUR (See also:

• LAT

Lat. arma, from the See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root ar, to join or See also:

• FIT

fit; cf. Gr. &ppbs, See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint; the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form armour, from Lat. armatura, should strictly be armure)  . Under this heading are included weapons of offence (See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army) and defensive equipment (See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour) . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of the development of arms and armour begins with that of the human See also:

• RACE

race; indeed, combined with domestic implements, the most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive weapons which have been found constitute the most important; if not the only, tangible See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence on which the history of primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is based . It is largely from the materials and characteristics of the weapons and utensils found in caves, tombs and various strata of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's crust, coupled with See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological considerations, that the ethnological and See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological classifications of prehistoric man have been deduced . For a detailed See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification and the evidence see See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

ARCHAEOLOGY; See also:

• BRONZE

BRONZE See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

AGE; See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

FLINT IMPLEMENTS, &e., and articles on See also:

• SPECIAL

special weapons . Offensive weapons may be classified roughly, according to their shape (i.e. the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow or See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound which they are intended ctasslf!- to inflict), and the way in which they are used, as cation . follows:—(1) Arms which are wielded by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand at See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close quarters . These are subdivided into (a) cleaving weapons, e.g. axes; (b) crushing, e.g. clubs, maces and all See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer-like arms; (c) thrusting, e.g. pointed swords and daggers; (d) cutting, e.g. sabres (such weapons frequently combine both the cut and the thrust, e.g. swords with both edge and point); (e) those weapons represented by the See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear, See also:

• LANCE

lance, See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike, &c., which See also:

• DEAL

deal a thrusting blow but are distinguished from (c) by their greater length . (2) Purely missile weapons, e.g. darts, javelins and spears . Frequently these weapons are used also at close quarters as thrusting weapons; the typical example of these is the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium-length spear of not more than about 6 ft. in length . (3) Arms which See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge missiles, e.g. bows, catapults and See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-arms generally . (See See also:

• ARCHERY

ARCHERY and See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section Fire-arms below.) The weapons in (2) and (3) are designed to avoid hand-to-hand fighting .

Weapons are also classified in a variety of other ways . Thus we have small-arms, i.e. all weapons in classes (1) and (2) with those in (3) which do not require carriages . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side-arms are those which, when not in use, are worn at the side, e.g. daggers, swords, bayonets . Armes blanches is a See also:

• TERM

term used for offensive weapons of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel which are used at close quarters . Defensive armour consists of See also:

• BODY

body armour, protections for the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and the limbs, and various types of See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield . 1 . See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone Age.—One of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief problems which have per- plexed archaeologists is that of finding a criterion which will History. enable them to distinguish the most primitive products of human skill from similar See also:

• OBJECTS

objects whose See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form is due to the forces of nature . It is often impossible to say precisely whether a rough piece of flint is to be regarded as a weapon (except so far as it could be used as a missile) or merely as a fragment of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . Passing over these doubtful cases, we come first to indubitable examples of weapons deliberately fashioned in stone for offensive purposes . The use of stone weapons appears to have been universally characteristic of the earliest races of mankind, as it is still distinctive of those See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage races which are most nearly allied to primitive man . These weapons were naturally See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in form and structure . The earliest examples (See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

Palaeolithic) found in See also:

• RIVER

river-See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel in various parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe are merely chipped flints, eats, &c .

Later on we find polished implements (See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic) progressively more elaborate in See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and workmanship, such as socketed stones with wooden handles and knives or daggers of flaked flint with handles . Besides flint the commonest materials are See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, greenstone, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine and indurated See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay-See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate; there are also weapons of See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn and See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone (daggers and spear-heads) . Spear-heads and arrow-points (See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-shaped, See also:

• LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also appears in Span. losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span. losa, the ultimate origin of whic

lozenge-shaped, tanged and triangular) were chipped in flint with such skill as to be little inferior to their See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal successors . They have accurately flaked barbs and tangs, and in some cases their edges are minutely chipped . The heads appear to have been fastened to the shafts by See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable fibre and See also:

• BITUMEN

bitumen . See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

Knife-daggers of flint, though practically of one single type, exhibit much variety of form . They vary in See also:

• SIZE

size also, but seldom exceed 12 in. in length . They are sometimes obtuse-edged like a scraping-See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool, sometimes delicately chipped to a straight edge, while the flakes are so regularly removed from the See also:

• CONVEX

convex See also:

• PART

part of the blade as to give a wavy See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and the corners of the handle are delicately crimped . The daggers attain their highest perfection in the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, leaf-shaped form,—the precursor of the leaf-shaped See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword which is peculiarly characteristic di the Bronze Age,—and, the curved knives found especially in See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, and also in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . The precise See also:

• OBJECT

object of the sharpening of both convex and See also:

• CON

con- See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave edges in the curved variety is not clear . There have also been found See also:

• SLING (from M. Eng. slingen, to fling, throw with a jerk, Icel. slyngva, cf. Ger. schlingen, to twist)

sling-stones, and, in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, balls of stone with their " surfaces divided into a number of more or less projecting circles with channels between them.” These latter, See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans suggests, were attached to a thong which passed through the surface channels, and used like the See also:

• BOLAS (plural of Span. bola, ball)

bolas of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America . The weapon could thus deal a blow at close quarters, or could be thrown so as to entangle the limbs of an enemy .

Of defensive armour of stone there is none . The only approximation is to be found in the small rectangular plates of slate, &c., perforated with holes at the corners, which are supposed to have been See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound on to the See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm to protect it from the recoil of the See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow-See also:

• STRING

string . Similar wristlets or bracers are in use among the Eskimos (of bone) and in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India (of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory) . These plates measure generally about 4 in. by 11 in . 2 . Bronze Age.—It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning, of the Bronze Age; indeed, archaeology has shown that the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of metal for weapons was very See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual . Tie stone weapon perseveres alongside the bronze, and there exist stone axes which, by their shape, suggest that they have been copied from metal axes . In the earliest interments in which the weapons deposited with the dead are of other materials than stone, a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar form of bronze See also:

• DAGGER

dagger occurs . It consists of a well-finished, thin, knife-like blade, usually about 6 in. in length, broad at the hilt and tapering to the point, and attached to the handle by massive rivets of bronze . It has been found associated with stone cells; both of the roughly chipped and the highly polished kind, showing that these had not been entirely disused when bronze became available . A later type of bronze dagger is a broad, heavy, curved weapon, usually from 9 to 15 in. in length; with massive rivets for See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to an equally massive handle . The leaf-shaped sword, however, is the characteristic weapon of the Bronze Age .

It is found all over Europe, from See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland to the Mediterranean . No warlike weapon of any See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period is more graceful in form or more beautifully finished . The finish seems to have been given in the See also:

• MOULD

mould without the aid of hammer or See also:

• FILE

file, the edge being formed by suddenly reducing the thickness of the metal, so as to produce a narrow border of extreme thinness along Dagger . both sides of the blade from hilt to point . The handle-See also:

• PLATE

plate and blade were See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in one piece, and the handle itself was formed by side plates of bone, horn or See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, riveted through the handle-plates . There was no guard, and the weapon, though short, was well balanced, but more fitted for stabbing and thrusting than for cutting with the edge . The Scandinavian variety is not so decidedly leaf-shaped, and is longer and heavier than the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• BRITISH

British form; and instead of a handle-plate, it was furnished with a tang on which a See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-topped handle was fastened, like that of the See also:

• MODERN

modern Highland See also:

• DIRK

dirk, sometimes surmounted by a See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent-like See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament of bronze . A narrow, See also:

• RAPIER

rapier-shaped variety, tapering from hilt to point, was made without a handle-plate, and attached to the hilt by rivets like the bronze daggers already mentioned . This form is more common in the British Isles than in Scandinavia, and is most abundant in Ireland . The spear-heads of the Bronze Age See also:

• PRESENT

present a considerable variety of form, though the leaf-shaped predominates, and barbed examples are extremely rare . Some British weapons of this form occasion-ally reach a length of 27 in . The larger varieties are often beautifully designed, having segmental openings on both sides of the central See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the blade, and elaborately ornamented with See also:

• CHEVRON (Fr. from chevre, a goat)

chevron patterns of chased or inlaid See also:

• WORK

work both on the socket and blade .

Arrow-points are much rarer in bronze than in flint . ' In all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the flint arrow-point (which was equally effective and much more easily replaced when lost) continued to be used throughout the Bronze Age . See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

Shields of bronze, circular, with hammered-up bosses, concentric ridges and rows of studs, were held in the hand by a central handle underneath the See also:

• BOSS

boss . The transition period between the Bronze and Iron Ages in central Europe is well defined by the occurrence of iron swords, which are simple copies of the leaf-shaped weapon, sometimes with flat handle-plate of bronze . These have been found associated with articles assigned to the 3rd or 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . An important distinction between the characteristic bronze swords peculiar to See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern peoples and the swords both of iron and of bronze found together in the See also:

• HALLSTATT

Hallstatt cemeteries Hallstatt (in the Salzkarnmergut, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• NORICUM (Noricus ager)

Noricum) is weapons . that whereas the former invariably have short handles (2; to 21 in.), the latter are provided with handles from 3 to 32 in. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, terminating in a round or See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval See also:

• POMMEL (through O. Fr. pomel, from a diminutive pomellus of Lat. pomum, fruit, apple)

pommel; the grip of one of the bronze swords even reaches a length of 4 in . The hilts are decorated with ivory, See also:

• AMBER

amber, wood, bronze, horn, and the decoration of blade and See also:

• SCABBARD

scabbard is often elaborate . The length of these swords is sometimes as much as 30 to 33 in . Again at La Tene on See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• NEUCHATEL
• NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg)
• NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF

Neuchatel iron swords have been found to the number of one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred, with handles of 4 to 71 in. long and a See also:

• TOTAL

total length varying from 30 to 38 in . Similar remains have been found in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France at See also:

• BIBRACTE

Bibracte and See also:

• ALESIA

Alesia, and even in Ireland (cf . See also:

• MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885)
• MUNRO, MUNRO
• MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805)
• MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827)

Munro, The Lake-dwellings of Europe, pp .

282, 383) . The occurrence at Hallstatt of bronze swords together with iron, having the characteristic long handle, has led to the hypo-thesis that the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves are those of an immigrant (probably See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic) See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern extraction which had conquered and overlaid a smaller-framed Bronze Age people, and had introduced the use of iron while continuing to use the bronze of their predecessors with the necessary modifications . This theory derived from tangible remains is corroborated by See also:

• LITERARY

literary evidence . Thus See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius (ii . 33, iii . 114) describes the Celtic peoples as fighting with a long pointless iron sword, which easily See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent and was in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case too large to be used easily in a melee . The graves at Hallstatt yielded in addition to these important swords a much larger number of spears . Of these two only were of bronze, the head of the larger being 71 in. long . The much more numerous iron heads range up to as much as 2 ft. in length, and are all fastened to the See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft by rivets . All the arrow-headsfound are of bronze, while of the axes the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are of iron; a few have iron edges fitted in a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of bronze . These examples are sufficient to show that the transition from bronze to iron was very slow . The fact that they were found in a See also:

• DISTRICT

district which is known to have been directly in the See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march pursued by invaders from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north tends to confirm the theory that the introduction of iron was the work of such invaders .

See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements tend. ed,, 1897), Bronze Implements; W . Ridgeway, See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Age of See also:

• GREECE

Greece; and See also:

• WORKS

works quoted under ARCHAEOLOGY . 3 . Early See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Weapons,—The See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the weapons used by the early peoples of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean in the periods known as Minoan, Mycenaean and Homeric is a problem which has given rise of See also:

• RECENT

recent years to much discussion . The Mycenaean controversy is an important part of the Homeric an :merle. question as a whole, and the various theories of the weapons used in the Trojan See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War See also:

• HINGE (in Mid. Eng. henge or heeng, from hengen, to hang)

hinge on wider theories as to the date and authorship of the Homeric poems . One widely accepted See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis, based on the important monograph by Dr Wolfgang Reichel, UberhomerischeWaffen . Archaologische Untersuchungen (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1894), is that the Homeric heroes, like those who created the See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization known as Mycenaean, had no defensive armour except the Mycenaean shield, and used weapons of bronze . This view is derived to a great extent from the Homeric poems them-selves, in which the metal most frequently mentioned is xa)vcos (bronze), and involves the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that all passages which describe the use of corslets, breastplates, small shields and See also:

• GREAVES, JOHN (1602–1652)

greaves are later interpolations . It is maintained on the other hand (e.g. by Prof . W . Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, i. See also:

• CHAP

chap . 3), that the Homeric See also:

• ACHAEANS ('AXaioi, Lat. Achivi)

Achaeans (whom he regards as the descendants of the central See also:

• EUROPEAN

European peoples, the makers of the Hallstatt iron swords) were far advanced into the Iron Age, and that the use of bronze weapons is merely another instance of the fact that the introduction of a new See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element does not necessarily banish the older .

This theory would See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the Homeric from the Mycenaean altogether, and is part of a much more comprehensive ethnological hypothesis . According to another hypothesis, the Homeric poems are true descriptions of a single age, or, in other words, the weapons of the Homeric age were far more diverse and elaborate than is supposed by Reichel . Very few traces of iron have been found in the Mycenaean settlements, nor have any examples of body armour been found except the ceremonial See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold breastplates at See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae . The Mycenaean soldiers carried apparently a bronze spear, a bronze sword and a bow and arrows . The arrow-heads are first of See also:

• OBSIDIAN

obsidian and later of bronze . It would appear that only the chief warriors used spear and shield, while the majority fought with bows . The swords found at Mycenae are two-edged, of rigid bronze, and as long as 3 ft. or even more; from representations of battles it would seem that they were perhaps used for thrusting mainly . They are highly ornamented and some have hilts of wood, bone or ivory, or even gold mounting . Later swords became shorter and of a type like that of early iron swords found in Greece; Moreover in a few cases there have been found in pre-Mycenaean (See also:

• LATE

late Minoan III.) tombs a few examples of short iron swords together with bronze remains . All Mycenaean spears are of bronze and, apparently, their shafts, unlike the Homeric, had no See also:

• BUTT
• BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879)

butt-piece . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any metal helmets in the tombs we may perhaps assume that the Mycenaean See also:

• HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. helme, mod. heaume; the English word is " helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base hal-, pre-Teut. kal-, to cover; cf. Lat. celare, to hide, Eng. " hell," &c.)

helmet was a See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather cap, possibly strengthened with tusks, such as appears in See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer (Iliad, x.) also . The Mycenaean shield (generally, perhaps, made of leather) has given rise to much controversy, which hinges largely on the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the evidence provided by the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation on the See also:

• WARRIOR

Warrior See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

Vase and the Painted See also:

• STELE

Stele from Mycenae and pottery found at See also:

• TIRYNS

Tiryns .

See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Ridgeway regards these as describing See also:

• POST

post-Mycenaean conditions, and maintains that the true Mycenaean shield was always long (from See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck to feet), and that it was either in the form of a figure-of-eight targe, or rectangular and sometimes incurved like the section of a See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder; whereas the Homeric shield was round (e.g . KwKX67-Epos, €v,weXOS, &c.) . Dr Reichel's followers believe that the Homeric shield was long ("like a See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower") and incurved in the centre like the Mycenaean, that Homer knew nothing of the small round shield, and that the epithets implying roundness used in the poems are to be explained as meaning " well-balanced " or as late interpolations . On the whole we must conclude that the Mycenaean age is by no means a single homogeneous whole (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION), and that the weapons are not exclusively of bronze, nor of any single type . The Homeric warrior in full armour, according to the Homeric poems, wore: (I) shield (&Oafs, o'aKOS), (2) greaves (KV77µtSES), (3) See also:

• BAND

band (N,ua), (4) See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt (("worilp)and See also:

• MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. j4rpa, a band, head-band, head-dress)

mitre, (5) See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic (Xcruw), (6) helmet (KOpis), (7) breastplate (Bwprl ), (8) sword (ti os) . The Xacvijiov was a See also:

• PROTECTION

protection worn by the archers in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of a shield . According to the usual view, the Homeric shield was, as we have seen, bent in about See also:

• HALF

half way up each side (in the form of a figure-of-eight) to give freedom to the arms, and large enough to protect the whole body . The two curves were held rigid by two wooden (probably) staves inside . It was composed of layers of ox-hide overlaid with bronze, forming a boss in the centre, and sometimes had studs upon it . Reichel's view is that it was the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of these huge shields which led to the use of the See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot as a means of going rapidly from one part of the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field to another (though Professor Ridgeway and others contest this, and Helbig mentions more than one case of long journeys on See also:

• FOOT

foot under shield), and further that the round shield is entirely unknown to Homer . This large shield was clearly the natural protection against showers of missiles, rather than against enemies fighting with the sword . The greaves were, no doubt, generally of hide, protected the See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg all round, and were fastened at the See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee with cords .

On the other hand Mycenaean bronze greaves have been found at Enkomi (See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus) and at Glassinatz (Glasinac), and therefore it is not necessary, following Reichel, to cut out Homer's references to the " bronze-greaved " Achaeans (Iliad, vii . 41), a phrase which has been taken as evidence for regarding the passage as See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious . The See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin greaves of See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles are obviously exceptional . The thorex again is the subject of controversy . Reichel, arguing that the great shield rendered any breastplate unnecessary, regarded the word as a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general term for body clothing, but Ridgeway strongly maintains the older theory that it was a bronze breastplate, and See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang points out that, on Reichel's theory, a word which originally meant the " See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast " was transferred to mean " See also:

• LOIN (through O. Fr. loigne or logne, mod. lunge, from Lat. Iambus)

loin-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth " (which, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic representations, was all that the Mycenaean warrior wore), and subsequently in historic times returned to its natural use for the breastplate—a most unlikely See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . The passages in Homer which describe it as a breastplate are regarded by Reichel's school as later interpolations . See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray thinks that the Homeric poems must be regarded as belonging to different periods of development, and therefore attributes the more elaborate armour to the " surface " (late Ionian) stratum . The zoma was probably a loin-cloth, and the mitre a metal band about a foot wide in front and narrow behind to protect the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the body . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, however, the big shield does not exclude the use of body armour, and it is quite likely that the Homeric warrior wore a bronze corslet, i.e. a somewhat improved form of the Xcvo8wprl, or stiffened See also:

• SHIRT

shirt . On the other hand, it is probable, as we gather from the poems, that this corslet was not strong enough to do more than stop a spent spear . The See also:

• CHITON

chiton was worn over the mitre, and reached the knees; it was held to the body by the zosler, a metal-plated belt . Helmets were both of metal on leather, and of leather throughout; the crests were of horsehair (not of metal like the later Greek helmets) and there were no cheek-pieces .

The sword has already been mentioned . Ridgeway, in spite of the almost invariable mention of bronze as the material of the Homeric weapons, believes that it was generally .of iron, but, while the presence of iron in the Homeric age is admitted in the case of implements, it is generally held that weapons were all of bronze . Except for one arrow-head (Iliad, iv . 123), and the See also:

• MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat.'ntateola, a mallet)

mace of Areithoiis, mentioned as a unique example by See also:

• NESTOR
• NESTOR (c. 1056-c. 1114)

Nestor (Iliad, vii . 141), no reference to an iron weapon proper occurs in the Homeric poems . 13ut the sword was used only when the favourite spear or See also:

• JAVELIN

javelin had failed to decide the contest . It must be admitted that the problem of pre-Homeric armour and Homeric armour must always be largely a matter of inference, based on a See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative study of the evidence literary and archaeological . Unless we are prepared to adopt the theory that the Homeric poems consist of a See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

mosaic of See also:

• INTERPOLATION (from Lat. interpolare, to alter, or insert something fresh, connected with pollee, a polish)

interpolation informed by an archaizing editor, we must assume that they describe a single period of transition intermediate between the Mycenaean See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime and the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of history proper . In this case we shall believe that the Homeric warrior has so far adapted to changing conditions the simple appliances of the Mycenaean that he has evolved a feeble corslet with See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor pieces of body armour, while retaining the big See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-bellied shield as a protection against the arrows which are still the chief weapon of the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and file and are even used on occasion by the chiefs . If we further believe that the iron at his disposal was similar to that used by the Celts of Polybius, it is natural to believe also that he preferred the harder bronze for his weapons, though iron was common for domestic and other implements . On early Greek arms in general see, besides Reichel and Ridgeway op. cit.: A . Lang, Homer and his Age (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1906; and criticisms in Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1907); G .

G . A . Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1907), chap. vi,; R . M . Burrows, Discoveries in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete (2nd ed., London, 1907); Leaf and Bayfield, Iliad, i.–xii . Appendix A (follows Reichel) ; W . Helbig, Homerische Epos (1884 and 1899), and La Question mycenienne (1896); C . See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert, Studien zur Ilias (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1901); Chr . Tsountas and J . I . Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897); V . See also:

• BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC (1789-1828)

Berard, See also:

• LES

Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1902) ; Cauer, Grundfrager d .

Homerkritik (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1895) ; much valuable discussion will be found in articles in Journ . See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

Hell, See also:

• STUD

Stud., Classical Rev. and Journ. of Anthropol . Instit . ; see also See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Iliad and Odyssey (espec . D . B . See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro), and works quoted under AEGEAN CIVILIZATION; HOMER; MYCENAE . 4 . Greek, See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical.—The equipment does not differ generic-ally from that described in the Homeric poems, except when we come to the reforms of the Macedonians . The hoplites, who formed the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main army, wore helmet, body armour, greaves and shield, and fought with pike and sword . The helmets were (1) the Corinthian, which covered the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to the See also:

• CHIN

chin, with slits for the eyes, and often had no plume or See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest; (2) the Athenian, which did not See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the face (though sometimes it had cheek-plates which could be turned up if necessary), had crests, some-times triple, with plumes of feathers, horsehair or leather; (3) a steel cap (See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram) without crest, plumes or cheek-plates . The last seems to have been most common in the Spartan army .

The body armour consisted of breast and back plates fastened together by thongs or straps and buckles; sometimes poverty compelled a man to be content with a leather See also:

• JERKIN

jerkin (OaoXas). partly strengthened by metal plates, or even a quilted See also:

• LINEN

linen or stuffed shirt . Greaves were.of pliant bronze fastened at the back above the See also:

• ANKLE

ankle and below the knee . Shields were of the small round or oval type, adapted to the new conditions in which the bow and arrow had given place to hand-to-hand fighting . They were held by means of two handles (6xava), the See also:

• LEFT

left hand being thrust through the first and grasping the second . In the 5th and 4th centuries the shield See also:

• BORE

bore a See also:

• DEVICE

device or initial representing the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state and also the individual's own crest . The hoplite's pike, about 8 ft. long, unlike the Homeric weapon, was hardly ever thrown . In the Macedonian See also:

• PHALANX (Gr. /&Xa'y, , of unknown origin)

phalanx a pike (ae.pcosra), certainly 18 ft., and perhaps later in the 3rd and 2nd centuries even 24 ft. long, was introduced . The sword was straight, See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp-pointed, short, sometimes less than zo in., and rarely more than 2 ft. long . It was double-edged and used for both cut and thrust . A less common type was the s6. acpa or curved sabre used by the Spartans, with one sharp edge . The hoplite had no other offensive weapons . The See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry were heavy-armed like the hoplites except that they carried a smaller shield, or, more usually, none at all .

They were armed with a lance which they wielded freely (i.e. not " in See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest ") and occasionally threw . The Macedonian cavalry had a o•icpu r ra . The See also:

• LIGHT

light-armed (yuµvi rec, tiGcXoi.) were (I) &See also:

• KOVNO
• KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauna)

Kovno-See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat, armed with a javelin (3 to 5 ft. long) and a small shield; (z) ro orat, archers; and (3) vOEVSovilrac, slingers, whose missiles were balls of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, stones and hardened clay pellets . Between the heavy and the light armed were the peltasts . The pelta, from which they took the name, was a light shield or See also:

• TARGET
• TARGET, GUI JEAN BAPTISTE (1733-1807)

target, made of skin or leather on a wooden or wickerwork See also:

• FRAME

frame . The Athenian See also:

• IPHICRATES

Iphicrates armed them with linen corslet and a larger spear and sword than those of the hoplites; he also invented a new footgear (called after him iphicratules) to replace the older greaves . 5 . See also:

• ROMAN

Roman.—The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization of the army (see ROMAN ARMY), passed through a great number of changes, and it is quite impossible to summarize it as a single subject . In the period of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings the See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion was the old Greek phalanx with Greek armour; the front ranks wore the Greek See also:

• PANOPLY

panoply and fought with long spears and the circular Argolic shield . The early Roman sword, like that of the Greeks, Egyptians and Etruscans, was of bronze . We have no See also:

• DIRECT

direct statement as to its form, but in all probability it was of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary leaf-shape . We gather from the monuments that, in the 1st century B.C., the Roman sword was short, worn on the right side (except by See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who carried no shield), suspended from a See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder-belt (balteus) or a See also:

• WAIST

waist-belt (cingutum), and reaching from the hollow of the back to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the thigh, thus representing a length of from 22 in. to 2 ft .

The blade was straight, double-edged, obtusely-pointed . On the See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column (A.D . 114) it is considerably longer, and under the See also:

• FLAVIAN (d. 449)

Flavian emperors the long, single-edged spatha appears frequently along with the short sword . The second period ending with the Punic See also:

• WARS

wars witnessed a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . The hastati and the principes are both heavily armed, but the round shield has given way to the oblong (scutum), except for one-third of the hastati who bore only the spear and the light javelin (gaesa) . The third period—that described by Polybius—is characterized by greater complexity of armour, due no doubt in part to the experience gained in conflicts with a wider range of peoples, and in part to the assimilation of the methods peculiar to the new See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies . Thus we find the skirmishers (velites) armed with a light javelin 3 ft. long and 1 in. thick, with an iron point g in. long; this point was so fragile that it was rendered useless by the first cast . For See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence they wore a hide-covered headpiece and a round buckler 3 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter . The heavy-armed carried a scutum formed of two boards glued together, covered with See also:

• CANVAS

canvas and skin, and incurved into the shape of a half-cylinder; its upper and lower edges were strengthened with iron rims and its centre with a boss (umbo) . A g