ARMS AND See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

ARMOUR (See also:

• LAT

Lat. arma, from the See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root ar, to join or See also:

• FIT

fit; cf. Gr. &ppbs, See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint; the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form armour, from Lat. armatura, should strictly be armure)  . Under this heading are included weapons of offence (See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army) and defensive equipment (See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour) . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of the development of arms and armour begins with that of the human See also:

• RACE

race; indeed, combined with domestic implements, the most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive weapons which have been found constitute the most important; if not the only, tangible See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence on which the history of primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is based . It is largely from the materials and characteristics of the weapons and utensils found in caves, tombs and various strata of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's crust, coupled with See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological considerations, that the ethnological and See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological classifications of prehistoric man have been deduced . For a detailed See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification and the evidence see See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

ARCHAEOLOGY; See also:

• BRONZE

BRONZE See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

AGE; See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

FLINT IMPLEMENTS, &e., and articles on See also:

• SPECIAL

special weapons . Offensive weapons may be classified roughly, according to their shape (i.e. the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow or See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound which they are intended ctasslf!- to inflict), and the way in which they are used, as cation . follows:—(1) Arms which are wielded by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand at See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close quarters . These are subdivided into (a) cleaving weapons, e.g. axes; (b) crushing, e.g. clubs, maces and all See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer-like arms; (c) thrusting, e.g. pointed swords and daggers; (d) cutting, e.g. sabres (such weapons frequently combine both the cut and the thrust, e.g. swords with both edge and point); (e) those weapons represented by the See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear, See also:

• LANCE

lance, See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike, &c., which See also:

• DEAL

deal a thrusting blow but are distinguished from (c) by their greater length . (2) Purely missile weapons, e.g. darts, javelins and spears . Frequently these weapons are used also at close quarters as thrusting weapons; the typical example of these is the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium-length spear of not more than about 6 ft. in length . (3) Arms which See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge missiles, e.g. bows, catapults and See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-arms generally . (See See also:

• ARCHERY

ARCHERY and See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section Fire-arms below.) The weapons in (2) and (3) are designed to avoid hand-to-hand fighting .

Weapons are also classified in a variety of other ways . Thus we have small-arms, i.e. all weapons in classes (1) and (2) with those in (3) which do not require carriages . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side-arms are those which, when not in use, are worn at the side, e.g. daggers, swords, bayonets . Armes blanches is a See also:

• TERM

term used for offensive weapons of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel which are used at close quarters . Defensive armour consists of See also:

• BODY

body armour, protections for the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and the limbs, and various types of See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield . 1 . See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone Age.—One of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief problems which have per- plexed archaeologists is that of finding a criterion which will History. enable them to distinguish the most primitive products of human skill from similar See also:

• OBJECTS

objects whose See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form is due to the forces of nature . It is often impossible to say precisely whether a rough piece of flint is to be regarded as a weapon (except so far as it could be used as a missile) or merely as a fragment of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . Passing over these doubtful cases, we come first to indubitable examples of weapons deliberately fashioned in stone for offensive purposes . The use of stone weapons appears to have been universally characteristic of the earliest races of mankind, as it is still distinctive of those See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage races which are most nearly allied to primitive man . These weapons were naturally See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in form and structure . The earliest examples (See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

Palaeolithic) found in See also:

• RIVER

river-See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel in various parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe are merely chipped flints, eats, &c .

Later on we find polished implements (See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic) progressively more elaborate in See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and workmanship, such as socketed stones with wooden handles and knives or daggers of flaked flint with handles . Besides flint the commonest materials are See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, greenstone, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine and indurated See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay-See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate; there are also weapons of See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn and See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone (daggers and spear-heads) . Spear-heads and arrow-points (See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-shaped, See also:

• LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also appears in Span. losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span. losa, the ultimate origin of whic

lozenge-shaped, tanged and triangular) were chipped in flint with such skill as to be little inferior to their See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal successors . They have accurately flaked barbs and tangs, and in some cases their edges are minutely chipped . The heads appear to have been fastened to the shafts by See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable fibre and See also:

• BITUMEN

bitumen . See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

Knife-daggers of flint, though practically of one single type, exhibit much variety of form . They vary in See also:

• SIZE

size also, but seldom exceed 12 in. in length . They are sometimes obtuse-edged like a scraping-See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool, sometimes delicately chipped to a straight edge, while the flakes are so regularly removed from the See also:

• CONVEX

convex See also:

• PART

part of the blade as to give a wavy See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and the corners of the handle are delicately crimped . The daggers attain their highest perfection in the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, leaf-shaped form,—the precursor of the leaf-shaped See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword which is peculiarly characteristic di the Bronze Age,—and, the curved knives found especially in See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, and also in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . The precise See also:

• OBJECT

object of the sharpening of both convex and See also:

• CON

con- See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave edges in the curved variety is not clear . There have also been found See also:

• SLING (from M. Eng. slingen, to fling, throw with a jerk, Icel. slyngva, cf. Ger. schlingen, to twist)

sling-stones, and, in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, balls of stone with their " surfaces divided into a number of more or less projecting circles with channels between them.” These latter, See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans suggests, were attached to a thong which passed through the surface channels, and used like the See also:

• BOLAS (plural of Span. bola, ball)

bolas of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America . The weapon could thus deal a blow at close quarters, or could be thrown so as to entangle the limbs of an enemy .

Of defensive armour of stone there is none . The only approximation is to be found in the small rectangular plates of slate, &c., perforated with holes at the corners, which are supposed to have been See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound on to the See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm to protect it from the recoil of the See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow-See also:

• STRING

string . Similar wristlets or bracers are in use among the Eskimos (of bone) and in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India (of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory) . These plates measure generally about 4 in. by 11 in . 2 . Bronze Age.—It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning, of the Bronze Age; indeed, archaeology has shown that the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of metal for weapons was very See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual . Tie stone weapon perseveres alongside the bronze, and there exist stone axes which, by their shape, suggest that they have been copied from metal axes . In the earliest interments in which the weapons deposited with the dead are of other materials than stone, a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar form of bronze See also:

• DAGGER

dagger occurs . It consists of a well-finished, thin, knife-like blade, usually about 6 in. in length, broad at the hilt and tapering to the point, and attached to the handle by massive rivets of bronze . It has been found associated with stone cells; both of the roughly chipped and the highly polished kind, showing that these had not been entirely disused when bronze became available . A later type of bronze dagger is a broad, heavy, curved weapon, usually from 9 to 15 in. in length; with massive rivets for See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to an equally massive handle . The leaf-shaped sword, however, is the characteristic weapon of the Bronze Age .

It is found all over Europe, from See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland to the Mediterranean . No warlike weapon of any See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period is more graceful in form or more beautifully finished . The finish seems to have been given in the See also:

• MOULD

mould without the aid of hammer or See also:

• FILE

file, the edge being formed by suddenly reducing the thickness of the metal, so as to produce a narrow border of extreme thinness along Dagger . both sides of the blade from hilt to point . The handle-See also:

• PLATE

plate and blade were See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in one piece, and the handle itself was formed by side plates of bone, horn or See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, riveted through the handle-plates . There was no guard, and the weapon, though short, was well balanced, but more fitted for stabbing and thrusting than for cutting with the edge . The Scandinavian variety is not so decidedly leaf-shaped, and is longer and heavier than the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• BRITISH

British form; and instead of a handle-plate, it was furnished with a tang on which a See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-topped handle was fastened, like that of the See also:

• MODERN

modern Highland See also:

• DIRK

dirk, sometimes surmounted by a See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent-like See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament of bronze . A narrow, See also:

• RAPIER

rapier-shaped variety, tapering from hilt to point, was made without a handle-plate, and attached to the hilt by rivets like the bronze daggers already mentioned . This form is more common in the British Isles than in Scandinavia, and is most abundant in Ireland . The spear-heads of the Bronze Age See also:

• PRESENT

present a considerable variety of form, though the leaf-shaped predominates, and barbed examples are extremely rare . Some British weapons of this form occasion-ally reach a length of 27 in . The larger varieties are often beautifully designed, having segmental openings on both sides of the central See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the blade, and elaborately ornamented with See also:

• CHEVRON (Fr. from chevre, a goat)

chevron patterns of chased or inlaid See also:

• WORK

work both on the socket and blade .

Arrow-points are much rarer in bronze than in flint . ' In all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the flint arrow-point (which was equally effective and much more easily replaced when lost) continued to be used throughout the Bronze Age . See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

Shields of bronze, circular, with hammered-up bosses, concentric ridges and rows of studs, were held in the hand by a central handle underneath the See also:

• BOSS

boss . The transition period between the Bronze and Iron Ages in central Europe is well defined by the occurrence of iron swords, which are simple copies of the leaf-shaped weapon, sometimes with flat handle-plate of bronze . These have been found associated with articles assigned to the 3rd or 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . An important distinction between the characteristic bronze swords peculiar to See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern peoples and the swords both of iron and of bronze found together in the See also:

• HALLSTATT

Hallstatt cemeteries Hallstatt (in the Salzkarnmergut, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• NORICUM (Noricus ager)

Noricum) is weapons . that whereas the former invariably have short handles (2; to 21 in.), the latter are provided with handles from 3 to 32 in. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, terminating in a round or See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval See also:

• POMMEL (through O. Fr. pomel, from a diminutive pomellus of Lat. pomum, fruit, apple)

pommel; the grip of one of the bronze swords even reaches a length of 4 in . The hilts are decorated with ivory, See also:

• AMBER

amber, wood, bronze, horn, and the decoration of blade and See also:

• SCABBARD

scabbard is often elaborate . The length of these swords is sometimes as much as 30 to 33 in . Again at La Tene on See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• NEUCHATEL
• NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg)
• NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF

Neuchatel iron swords have been found to the number of one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred, with handles of 4 to 71 in. long and a See also:

• TOTAL

total length varying from 30 to 38 in . Similar remains have been found in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France at See also:

• BIBRACTE

Bibracte and See also:

• ALESIA

Alesia, and even in Ireland (cf . See also:

• MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885)
• MUNRO, MUNRO
• MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805)
• MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827)

Munro, The Lake-dwellings of Europe, pp .

282, 383) . The occurrence at Hallstatt of bronze swords together with iron, having the characteristic long handle, has led to the hypo-thesis that the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves are those of an immigrant (probably See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic) See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern extraction which had conquered and overlaid a smaller-framed Bronze Age people, and had introduced the use of iron while continuing to use the bronze of their predecessors with the necessary modifications . This theory derived from tangible remains is corroborated by See also:

• LITERARY

literary evidence . Thus See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius (ii . 33, iii . 114) describes the Celtic peoples as fighting with a long pointless iron sword, which easily See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent and was in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case too large to be used easily in a melee . The graves at Hallstatt yielded in addition to these important swords a much larger number of spears . Of these two only were of bronze, the head of the larger being 71 in. long . The much more numerous iron heads range up to as much as 2 ft. in length, and are all fastened to the See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft by rivets . All the arrow-headsfound are of bronze, while of the axes the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are of iron; a few have iron edges fitted in a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of bronze . These examples are sufficient to show that the transition from bronze to iron was very slow . The fact that they were found in a See also:

• DISTRICT

district which is known to have been directly in the See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march pursued by invaders from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north tends to confirm the theory that the introduction of iron was the work of such invaders .

See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements tend. ed,, 1897), Bronze Implements; W . Ridgeway, See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Age of See also:

• GREECE

Greece; and See also:

• WORKS

works quoted under ARCHAEOLOGY . 3 . Early See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Weapons,—The See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the weapons used by the early peoples of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean in the periods known as Minoan, Mycenaean and Homeric is a problem which has given rise of See also:

• RECENT

recent years to much discussion . The Mycenaean controversy is an important part of the Homeric an :merle. question as a whole, and the various theories of the weapons used in the Trojan See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War See also:

• HINGE (in Mid. Eng. henge or heeng, from hengen, to hang)

hinge on wider theories as to the date and authorship of the Homeric poems . One widely accepted See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis, based on the important monograph by Dr Wolfgang Reichel, UberhomerischeWaffen . Archaologische Untersuchungen (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1894), is that the Homeric heroes, like those who created the See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization known as Mycenaean, had no defensive armour except the Mycenaean shield, and used weapons of bronze . This view is derived to a great extent from the Homeric poems them-selves, in which the metal most frequently mentioned is xa)vcos (bronze), and involves the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that all passages which describe the use of corslets, breastplates, small shields and See also:

• GREAVES, JOHN (1602–1652)

greaves are later interpolations . It is maintained on the other hand (e.g. by Prof . W . Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, i. See also:

• CHAP

chap . 3), that the Homeric See also:

• ACHAEANS ('AXaioi, Lat. Achivi)

Achaeans (whom he regards as the descendants of the central See also:

• EUROPEAN

European peoples, the makers of the Hallstatt iron swords) were far advanced into the Iron Age, and that the use of bronze weapons is merely another instance of the fact that the introduction of a new See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element does not necessarily banish the older .

This theory would See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the Homeric from the Mycenaean altogether, and is part of a much more comprehensive ethnological hypothesis . According to another hypothesis, the Homeric poems are true descriptions of a single age, or, in other words, the weapons of the Homeric age were far more diverse and elaborate than is supposed by Reichel . Very few traces of iron have been found in the Mycenaean settlements, nor have any examples of body armour been found except the ceremonial See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold breastplates at See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae . The Mycenaean soldiers carried apparently a bronze spear, a bronze sword and a bow and arrows . The arrow-heads are first of See also:

• OBSIDIAN

obsidian and later of bronze . It would appear that only the chief warriors used spear and shield, while the majority fought with bows . The swords found at Mycenae are two-edged, of rigid bronze, and as long as 3 ft. or even more; from representations of battles it would seem that they were perhaps used for thrusting mainly . They are highly ornamented and some have hilts of wood, bone or ivory, or even gold mounting . Later swords became shorter and of a type like that of early iron swords found in Greece; Moreover in a few cases there have been found in pre-Mycenaean (See also:

• LATE

late Minoan III.) tombs a few examples of short iron swords together with bronze remains . All Mycenaean spears are of bronze and, apparently, their shafts, unlike the Homeric, had no See also:

• BUTT
• BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879)

butt-piece . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any metal helmets in the tombs we may perhaps assume that the Mycenaean See also:

• HELMET (from an obsolete diminutive of O. Fr. helme, mod. heaume; the English word is " helm," as in O. Eng., Dutch and Ger.; all are from the Teutonic base hal-, pre-Teut. kal-, to cover; cf. Lat. celare, to hide, Eng. " hell," &c.)

helmet was a See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather cap, possibly strengthened with tusks, such as appears in See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer (Iliad, x.) also . The Mycenaean shield (generally, perhaps, made of leather) has given rise to much controversy, which hinges largely on the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the evidence provided by the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation on the See also:

• WARRIOR

Warrior See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

Vase and the Painted See also:

• STELE

Stele from Mycenae and pottery found at See also:

• TIRYNS

Tiryns .

See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Ridgeway regards these as describing See also:

• POST

post-Mycenaean conditions, and maintains that the true Mycenaean shield was always long (from See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck to feet), and that it was either in the form of a figure-of-eight targe, or rectangular and sometimes incurved like the section of a See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder; whereas the Homeric shield was round (e.g . KwKX67-Epos, €v,weXOS, &c.) . Dr Reichel's followers believe that the Homeric shield was long ("like a See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower") and incurved in the centre like the Mycenaean, that Homer knew nothing of the small round shield, and that the epithets implying roundness used in the poems are to be explained as meaning " well-balanced " or as late interpolations . On the whole we must conclude that the Mycenaean age is by no means a single homogeneous whole (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION), and that the weapons are not exclusively of bronze, nor of any single type . The Homeric warrior in full armour, according to the Homeric poems, wore: (I) shield (&Oafs, o'aKOS), (2) greaves (KV77µtSES), (3) See also:

• BAND

band (N,ua), (4) See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt (("worilp)and See also:

• MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. j4rpa, a band, head-band, head-dress)

mitre, (5) See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic (Xcruw), (6) helmet (KOpis), (7) breastplate (Bwprl ), (8) sword (ti os) . The Xacvijiov was a See also:

• PROTECTION

protection worn by the archers in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of a shield . According to the usual view, the Homeric shield was, as we have seen, bent in about See also:

• HALF

half way up each side (in the form of a figure-of-eight) to give freedom to the arms, and large enough to protect the whole body . The two curves were held rigid by two wooden (probably) staves inside . It was composed of layers of ox-hide overlaid with bronze, forming a boss in the centre, and sometimes had studs upon it . Reichel's view is that it was the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of these huge shields which led to the use of the See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot as a means of going rapidly from one part of the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field to another (though Professor Ridgeway and others contest this, and Helbig mentions more than one case of long journeys on See also:

• FOOT

foot under shield), and further that the round shield is entirely unknown to Homer . This large shield was clearly the natural protection against showers of missiles, rather than against enemies fighting with the sword . The greaves were, no doubt, generally of hide, protected the See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg all round, and were fastened at the See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee with cords .

On the other hand Mycenaean bronze greaves have been found at Enkomi (See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus) and at Glassinatz (Glasinac), and therefore it is not necessary, following Reichel, to cut out Homer's references to the " bronze-greaved " Achaeans (Iliad, vii . 41), a phrase which has been taken as evidence for regarding the passage as See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious . The See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin greaves of See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles are obviously exceptional . The thorex again is the subject of controversy . Reichel, arguing that the great shield rendered any breastplate unnecessary, regarded the word as a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general term for body clothing, but Ridgeway strongly maintains the older theory that it was a bronze breastplate, and See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang points out that, on Reichel's theory, a word which originally meant the " See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast " was transferred to mean " See also:

• LOIN (through O. Fr. loigne or logne, mod. lunge, from Lat. Iambus)

loin-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth " (which, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic representations, was all that the Mycenaean warrior wore), and subsequently in historic times returned to its natural use for the breastplate—a most unlikely See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . The passages in Homer which describe it as a breastplate are regarded by Reichel's school as later interpolations . See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray thinks that the Homeric poems must be regarded as belonging to different periods of development, and therefore attributes the more elaborate armour to the " surface " (late Ionian) stratum . The zoma was probably a loin-cloth, and the mitre a metal band about a foot wide in front and narrow behind to protect the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the body . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, however, the big shield does not exclude the use of body armour, and it is quite likely that the Homeric warrior wore a bronze corslet, i.e. a somewhat improved form of the Xcvo8wprl, or stiffened See also:

• SHIRT

shirt . On the other hand, it is probable, as we gather from the poems, that this corslet was not strong enough to do more than stop a spent spear . The See also:

• CHITON

chiton was worn over the mitre, and reached the knees; it was held to the body by the zosler, a metal-plated belt . Helmets were both of metal on leather, and of leather throughout; the crests were of horsehair (not of metal like the later Greek helmets) and there were no cheek-pieces .

The sword has already been mentioned . Ridgeway, in spite of the almost invariable mention of bronze as the material of the Homeric weapons, believes that it was generally .of iron, but, while the presence of iron in the Homeric age is admitted in the case of implements, it is generally held that weapons were all of bronze . Except for one arrow-head (Iliad, iv . 123), and the See also:

• MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat.'ntateola, a mallet)

mace of Areithoiis, mentioned as a unique example by See also:

• NESTOR
• NESTOR (c. 1056-c. 1114)

Nestor (Iliad, vii . 141), no reference to an iron weapon proper occurs in the Homeric poems . 13ut the sword was used only when the favourite spear or See also:

• JAVELIN

javelin had failed to decide the contest . It must be admitted that the problem of pre-Homeric armour and Homeric armour must always be largely a matter of inference, based on a See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative study of the evidence literary and archaeological . Unless we are prepared to adopt the theory that the Homeric poems consist of a See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

mosaic of See also:

• INTERPOLATION (from Lat. interpolare, to alter, or insert something fresh, connected with pollee, a polish)

interpolation informed by an archaizing editor, we must assume that they describe a single period of transition intermediate between the Mycenaean See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime and the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of history proper . In this case we shall believe that the Homeric warrior has so far adapted to changing conditions the simple appliances of the Mycenaean that he has evolved a feeble corslet with See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor pieces of body armour, while retaining the big See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-bellied shield as a protection against the arrows which are still the chief weapon of the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and file and are even used on occasion by the chiefs . If we further believe that the iron at his disposal was similar to that used by the Celts of Polybius, it is natural to believe also that he preferred the harder bronze for his weapons, though iron was common for domestic and other implements . On early Greek arms in general see, besides Reichel and Ridgeway op. cit.: A . Lang, Homer and his Age (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1906; and criticisms in Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1907); G .

G . A . Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1907), chap. vi,; R . M . Burrows, Discoveries in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete (2nd ed., London, 1907); Leaf and Bayfield, Iliad, i.–xii . Appendix A (follows Reichel) ; W . Helbig, Homerische Epos (1884 and 1899), and La Question mycenienne (1896); C . See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert, Studien zur Ilias (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1901); Chr . Tsountas and J . I . Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897); V . See also:

• BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC (1789-1828)

Berard, See also:

• LES

Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1902) ; Cauer, Grundfrager d .

Homerkritik (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1895) ; much valuable discussion will be found in articles in Journ . See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

Hell, See also:

• STUD

Stud., Classical Rev. and Journ. of Anthropol . Instit . ; see also See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Iliad and Odyssey (espec . D . B . See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro), and works quoted under AEGEAN CIVILIZATION; HOMER; MYCENAE . 4 . Greek, See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical.—The equipment does not differ generic-ally from that described in the Homeric poems, except when we come to the reforms of the Macedonians . The hoplites, who formed the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main army, wore helmet, body armour, greaves and shield, and fought with pike and sword . The helmets were (1) the Corinthian, which covered the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to the See also:

• CHIN

chin, with slits for the eyes, and often had no plume or See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest; (2) the Athenian, which did not See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the face (though sometimes it had cheek-plates which could be turned up if necessary), had crests, some-times triple, with plumes of feathers, horsehair or leather; (3) a steel cap (See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram) without crest, plumes or cheek-plates . The last seems to have been most common in the Spartan army .

The body armour consisted of breast and back plates fastened together by thongs or straps and buckles; sometimes poverty compelled a man to be content with a leather See also:

• JERKIN

jerkin (OaoXas). partly strengthened by metal plates, or even a quilted See also:

• LINEN

linen or stuffed shirt . Greaves were.of pliant bronze fastened at the back above the See also:

• ANKLE

ankle and below the knee . Shields were of the small round or oval type, adapted to the new conditions in which the bow and arrow had given place to hand-to-hand fighting . They were held by means of two handles (6xava), the See also:

• LEFT

left hand being thrust through the first and grasping the second . In the 5th and 4th centuries the shield See also:

• BORE

bore a See also:

• DEVICE

device or initial representing the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state and also the individual's own crest . The hoplite's pike, about 8 ft. long, unlike the Homeric weapon, was hardly ever thrown . In the Macedonian See also:

• PHALANX (Gr. /&Xa'y, , of unknown origin)

phalanx a pike (ae.pcosra), certainly 18 ft., and perhaps later in the 3rd and 2nd centuries even 24 ft. long, was introduced . The sword was straight, See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp-pointed, short, sometimes less than zo in., and rarely more than 2 ft. long . It was double-edged and used for both cut and thrust . A less common type was the s6. acpa or curved sabre used by the Spartans, with one sharp edge . The hoplite had no other offensive weapons . The See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry were heavy-armed like the hoplites except that they carried a smaller shield, or, more usually, none at all .

They were armed with a lance which they wielded freely (i.e. not " in See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest ") and occasionally threw . The Macedonian cavalry had a o•icpu r ra . The See also:

• LIGHT

light-armed (yuµvi rec, tiGcXoi.) were (I) &See also:

• KOVNO
• KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauna)

Kovno-See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat, armed with a javelin (3 to 5 ft. long) and a small shield; (z) ro orat, archers; and (3) vOEVSovilrac, slingers, whose missiles were balls of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, stones and hardened clay pellets . Between the heavy and the light armed were the peltasts . The pelta, from which they took the name, was a light shield or See also:

• TARGET
• TARGET, GUI JEAN BAPTISTE (1733-1807)

target, made of skin or leather on a wooden or wickerwork See also:

• FRAME

frame . The Athenian See also:

• IPHICRATES

Iphicrates armed them with linen corslet and a larger spear and sword than those of the hoplites; he also invented a new footgear (called after him iphicratules) to replace the older greaves . 5 . See also:

• ROMAN

Roman.—The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization of the army (see ROMAN ARMY), passed through a great number of changes, and it is quite impossible to summarize it as a single subject . In the period of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings the See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion was the old Greek phalanx with Greek armour; the front ranks wore the Greek See also:

• PANOPLY

panoply and fought with long spears and the circular Argolic shield . The early Roman sword, like that of the Greeks, Egyptians and Etruscans, was of bronze . We have no See also:

• DIRECT

direct statement as to its form, but in all probability it was of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary leaf-shape . We gather from the monuments that, in the 1st century B.C., the Roman sword was short, worn on the right side (except by See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who carried no shield), suspended from a See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder-belt (balteus) or a See also:

• WAIST

waist-belt (cingutum), and reaching from the hollow of the back to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the thigh, thus representing a length of from 22 in. to 2 ft .

The blade was straight, double-edged, obtusely-pointed . On the See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column (A.D . 114) it is considerably longer, and under the See also:

• FLAVIAN (d. 449)

Flavian emperors the long, single-edged spatha appears frequently along with the short sword . The second period ending with the Punic See also:

• WARS

wars witnessed a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . The hastati and the principes are both heavily armed, but the round shield has given way to the oblong (scutum), except for one-third of the hastati who bore only the spear and the light javelin (gaesa) . The third period—that described by Polybius—is characterized by greater complexity of armour, due no doubt in part to the experience gained in conflicts with a wider range of peoples, and in part to the assimilation of the methods peculiar to the new See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies . Thus we find the skirmishers (velites) armed with a light javelin 3 ft. long and 1 in. thick, with an iron point g in. long; this point was so fragile that it was rendered useless by the first cast . For See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence they wore a hide-covered headpiece and a round buckler 3 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter . The heavy-armed carried a scutum formed of two boards glued together, covered with See also:

• CANVAS

canvas and skin, and incurved into the shape of a half-cylinder; its upper and lower edges were strengthened with iron rims and its centre with a boss (umbo) . A greave was worn on the right leg, and the helmet was of bronze with a crest of three feathers . The wealthier soldiers wore the full See also:

• CUIRASS (Fr. cuirasse, Lat. coriaceus, made of leather, from corium, the original breastplate being of leather)

cuirass of See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain armour (lorica), the poorer a See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass plate 9 in. square . For offence they carried a sword and two javelins .

The former was the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish weapon, straight, double-edged and pointed, for both thrust and cut, in place of the old Greek sword . The characteristic weapon, however, was the pilum (Gr. boo-6s) . The form of this weapon and the mode of using it have been minutely described by Polybius (vi . 23), but his description has been much misunderstood in consequence of the rarity of representations or remains of the pilum . It is shown on a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of St Remy, in See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

Provence, assigned to the age of the first emperors, and in a bas-See also:

• RELIEF

relief at See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz, on the See also:

• GRAVE

grave-stone of See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus Petilius See also:

• SECUNDUS, JOHANNES
• SECUNDUS, PUBLIUS POMPONIUS

Secundus, a soldier of the 15th legion . A specimen of the actual weapon is in the museum at See also:

• WIESBADEN

Wiesbaden . It is a javelin with a stout iron head (9 in.), carried on an iron See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod, about 20 in. in length, which terminates in a tang for insertion in the wooden shaft . As represented on the monuments, the iron part of the weapon is about one-third of its entire length (61 ft.) . It was used primarily as a missile . When the point pierced the shield the weight of the stave pulled the shield downwards and rendered it useless . At close quarters it answered all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of the modern See also:

• BAYONET

bayonet when " fixed." See also:

• VEGETIUS (FLAvjUS VEGETIUS RENATUS)

Vegetius, in his Rei militaris instituta, describes it in a modified form as used in the armies of the lower See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and in a still more modified form it reappears as the " See also:

• ARGON (from the Gr. 6.-, privative, and Epyov, work; hence meaning " inert ")

argon " of the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks . This equipment was characteristic of hastati, principes and triarii(See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that the latter used the hasta instead of the pilum) .

We thus see how great is the change from the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when the hastati were the light-armed (from hasta) of the Greek phalanx . The cavalry, which had originally been protected only by a light ox-hide shield and the most fragile spears, adopted, about Polybius's time, the full Greek equipment of buckler, strong spear and breastplate . In thelastperiod of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic the pilum became the universal weapon of the heavy-armed, while the auxiliaries (all foreigners, the velites having disappeared) used the hasta and the long single-edged sword (spatha) . Under the empire the heavy-armed, according to See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus, had helmet, cuirass, a long sword worn on the left side, and a dagger on the right, pilum and scutum . The special detachment detailed to attend the See also:

• COMMANDER

commander had a round shield (clipeus) and a long spear . The cavalry wore armour like that of the See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry, with a broadsword, a buckler slung from the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse's side, a long See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole for thrusting, and several javelins, almost as large as spears, in a sheath or See also:

• QUIVER

quiver . See also:

• ARRIAN (FLAvrus ARRIANUS)

Arrian, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of a period some fifty years later, gives further particulars from which we gather that of the cavalry some were bowmen, some polemen, 'while others wielded lances and axes . For the arms and armour of other peoples of antiquity see e.g . See also:

• PERSIA

PERSIA: History, Ancient, section v . " The See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Empire of the Achaemenids "; BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon, section v . " Warfare "; See also:

• ETRURIA

ETRURIA; EGYPT, &c . (J .

M . M.) 6 . See also:

• ENGLISH

English from the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest.—It is unnecessary here to trace in detail the history of European armour in the middle ages and after, but its use and See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England may illustrate the broad lines of the gradual perfection and the hurried See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the ancient war-See also:

• HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of the Span. arnes, and Ger. Harnisch)

harness . Each See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country gave its armour something of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national character, the Spanish harness being touched with the Moorish See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, the Italian with the classical See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note borrowed from the monuments of old time, and the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German with the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic feeling for the See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque . To understand the development of English arms and armour it is well for us to consider carefully the fashion of these things at the time of that landmark of history, the Norman fifth-Conquest . Poets, chroniclers and See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law-makers give century us material for their description, and in the great See also:

• BAYEUX

Bayeux See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery of Bayeux, with its more than six hundred See also:

• TAPESTRY

tapestry. lively figures, we have pictured all the circumstances of war . We find that weapons and war See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear have advanced little or nothing beyond the age which saw the Dacian warrior armed from See also:

• CROWN

crown to foot . A See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight is reckoned fully armed if he have helmet, hawberk and shield; his weapons are sword and lance, although he sometimes carries See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe or mace and, more rarely, a bow . The coat of fence, which the Norman called hawberk and the English byrnie, hangs from neck to knee, the sleeves loose and covering the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow only, the skirt slit before and behind for ease in the See also:

• SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives

saddle . The Bayeux artists (see fig . 4) commonly show these skirts as though they were short breeches, the hawberk taking the fashion at first sight of a man's See also:

• SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being common in Teutonic languages)

swimming See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, but other authorities set us right, and to-wards the end of the tapestry we see men stripping hawberks from the slain by pulling them over the head . Back and front are so much alike that he who armed See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

Duke See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William for the fight slipped on the armour See also:

• HIND

hind side before, an See also:

• OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

omen that he should change his state of a duke for that of a See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king .

The hawberk might be See also:

• MAIL

mail of See also:

• WOVEN

woven rings, of rings sewn upon leather or See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, of overlapping scales of leather, horn or iron, of that jazerant work which was formed of little plates sewn to canvas or linen, or of thick cotton FIG . 4.-From the Bayeux and old linen padded and quilted Tapestry. in lozenges, squares or lines, There are indications that the hawberk was sometimes reinforced at the breast probably by a small oblong plate fastened underneath . Its weight is shown in the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene where William's men carry arms to the See also:

• SHIPS

ships, each hawberk being See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne between two men upon a pole thrust through the sleeves . The helmet is a brimless and pointed cap, either all of metal or of leather or even wood framed and strengthened with metal . Its characteristic piece is the guard which protects the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose and brow from swinging cuts, so disguising the knight that William must needs take off his helmet to show his men that he had not fallen . Such a nasal appears in a loth-century See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination; at the time of the Conquest it was all but universal . It grows rare and all but disappears in the 13th century, although examples are found to the end of the middle ages . The helmet is laced under the chin, and under it the knight often wore a See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of mail or quilting which covered the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the head, the ears and neck, but left the chin See also:

• FREE

free—in two or three cases he has this hood without the helmet . A close See also:

• COIF (from Fr. coiffe, Ital. cuffia, a cap)

coif was probably worn beneath it when it was of ringed mail, to spare the fretting of the metal on the head . The knights' legs are shown in most cases as unprotected save by stout See also:

• HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, hoes, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown)

hose or leg-bands: only in two or three instances does the tapestry picture a warrior with armed legs, and it is perhaps significant of the rarity of this defence that the duke is so armed . The feet are covered only by the leather See also:

• BOOT

boot, the heels having prick spurs . Broad-bladed swords with See also:

• CROSS

cross-hilts of straight or drooping quills are fastened with a strap and See also:

• BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821–1862)

buckle See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle to the left side .

They have a short grip, and the blade would seem to be from 22 to 3 ft. in length . The chieftain unarmed in his See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house is often seen with unbuckled and sheathed sword See also:

• SCEPTRE

sceptre-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise in his hands, carrying it as an See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• RAJA

raja will See also:

• NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nu/rite, to nourish)

nurse his sheathed tulwar . The ash spears brandished or couched by the knights as they See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge seem from 7 to 8 or 9 ft. in length . In a few cases a three-forked pennon flutters at the end . The axe, a weapon which the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans, in spite of their Norse ancestry, do not carry in the See also:

• BATTLE

battle, is of the type called the Danish axe, longshaf ted, the large blade boldly curved out . Maces, such as that with which the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Bayeux rallies his See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men, seem knotted clubs of simple form . Short and strong bows are See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to the breast by the Norman archers . Of the shields in the fight, four or five borne by the English are of the old English form--large, round bucklers of See also:

• LINDEN

linden-wood, bossed and ribbed with iron . For the rest the horsemen See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the Norman shield, See also:

• KITE

kite-shaped, with tapering foot, and long enough to carry a dead warrior from the field . On the inner side are straps for the hand to grip and a long strap allowed the knight to hang the shield from his neck . Let us note that although See also:

• WYVERN, or WIVERN

wyvern-like monsters, crosses, roundels and other devices appear on these shields, none of them has any indication of true armory, whose origins must be placed in the next century . The 12th century, although an age of See also:

• RIDING

riding and warring, affects but little the fashion of armour .

The picture of a king on 12th his See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal may well stand for the full-armed knight of his centery. age, but See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Beauclerc, See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen and Henry II. are shown in harness not much unlike that of the Bayeux See also:

• NEEDLEWORK

needlework . But the See also:

• SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch sloof, apron)

sleeve of the hawberk goes to the See also:

• WRIST

wrist, and the kite shield grows less, Stephen's shield being 30 in. long at the most . On Stephen's second seal the mail hood is drawn over the point of the chin, and Henry II.'s See also:

• SEALS

seals show the chin covered to the lips . At least one seal of this king has the legs and feet armed with hose of ringed mail, probably secured by lacing at the back of the leg as a modern boot is laced . The first seal of See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Lionheart marks an important See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement . His hawberk, hood and hose clothe him, -like his See also:

• FATHER

father, from crown to toe, and to this equipment he adds gloves of mail . Under the hawberk flows out to the heels the skirt of a long See also:

• GOWN

gown slit in front . But helm and shield are the most remarkable points . The shield has become flatter at the top, and at last the shield of an English king bears those armorial devices whose beginnings are seen elsewhere a See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation before . The earlier seal has the shield with a rampant See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion ramping to the sinister side and closelyresembling that on the shield of See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip of See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace, long believed to be the earliest example of true armory . But the shield in the second seal bears the three leopards which have been ever since the arms of the kings of England, and from this time to the end of the middle ages armorial devices become the common decorations of the knight's shield, coat, saddle and horse-trapper . The helmet of the first seal is a high See also:

• THIMBLE

thimble-topped cap, without a nasal guard, but the second has the king's head covered with the great helm, See also:

• BARREL (a word of uncertain origin common to Romance languages; the Celtic forms, as in the Gaelic baraill, are derived from the English)

barrel-shaped and reinforced in front with a flat ventaile pierced in slits for the sight .

This helm is crested with a semicircular ridge from which See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring two wings, or rows of feathers See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan-wise . On its side the ridge bears a single See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard, the forerunner of the coming crests . For 13th-century arms, although but poor scraps remain of See also:

• ORIGINAL

original material, we have authority in plenty—pictures, seals and See also:

• CARVING

carving, and, above all, the See also:

• EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL

effigies in stone or V3th brass which give us each visible See also:

• LINK

link, strap and orna- century. ment . All these have for a commentary See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles, poems and account books, so that the history of armour may be followed in detail . The long, sleeveless surcoat seen over King John's mail on his broad seal goes through the century and is often embroidered with arms . The shield becomes flat-topped the better to receive armorial charges . The great helm is common, although many knights on the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of battle like better the freedom of the mail hood with a steel cap worn over or under its crown, keeping for the tourney-yard the great helm which towards the century-end begins to carry its towering crest . Great variety is seen in the forms of the flat or round-topped helm, some being in one piece, pierced for sight and See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, others having hinged or movable ventailes . At the end of the century a See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• LOAF

loaf type is the established form . The knight's hawberk is worn over a gambeson of linen, quilted linen or cotton, which lesser men See also:

• WEAR

wear with a steel cap for all defence . Breast and back plates also are some-times borne under the hawberk, and the first plates in sight at last appear in those knee-cops which protect the joining of the 'upper and lower hose, and in a few examples of bainbergs or greaves of metal or leather . At, the end of Henry III.'s reign we have the admirable illustrations of a See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript of See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew Paris's Lives of the Off as, with many pictures of knights .

(See fig 5.) Here we see knights with knee-cop and greave and a From The Ancestor, by permission of A . See also:

• CONSTABLE (0. Fr. connestable, Fr. connetable, Med. Lat. comestabilis, conestabilis, constabularius, from the Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable)
• CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1774-1827)
• CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613)
• CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837)
• CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKE (c. 1455-1518)

Constable & Co . Ltd . FtG . 5.-Knights' Armour, c . 1250 . plenty of curious headpieces, the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain mail hood and mail hoods with a plate ventaile to cover the face, barrel-helms and round-topped helms and even round-topped helmets with the Norman nose-guard . In the last half of the 13th century appears the curious defence known as alettes . This name is given to a pair of leather plates generally oblong in form and tagged to the back of the shoulder . As a See also:

• RULE

rule they are borne to display the wearer's arms, but being sometimes plain they may have had some slight defensive value, covering a weak spot at the armpit and turning a sweeping sword-cut at the neck . They-disappear in the earlier years of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward III . Surcoat, shield and trapper have the arms of their owner .

The See also:

• ROWEL (from O. Fr. rouel or roel, dim. of roue, Lat. rota, wheel)

rowel-See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur makes a rare See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . Weapons change little . although the sword is often longer and heavier . Richard I. had favoured the cross-bow, in spite of papal denuncidtions of that weapon hateful to See also:

• GOD

God, and its use is common through all the 13th century. after which it makes way for the national weapon of the long-bow . In the 14th century, the high-day of See also:

• CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

chivalry, the age of See also:

• CRECY (Cressy)

Crecy and See also:

• POITIERS

Poitiers, of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince and See also:

• CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF
• CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-137o)

Chandos, the age which saw enrolled the See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble See also:

• COMPANY

company of the Garter, the See also:

• ART

art of the ~ecmry. armourer and weapon-See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith strides forward . At its beginning we see many knights still clad in chain mail with no visible plate . At its end the knight is often locked in plates from head to foot, no chainwork showing save the camail edge under the helm and the fringe of the mail skirt or haw berk . Before the first See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 14th century is past many of these plates are in common use . Sir John de Creke's brass, about 1325 1330, is a See also:

• FAIR

fair example (fig . 6) . His helmet is a See also:

• BASINET (a diminutive of " basin ")

basinet, pointed at the top, probably worn over a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete hood of mail flowing to the See also:

• MID

mid-breast . This hood was soon to lose its crown, the later basinets having the camail, a defence of mail covering neck, cheeks and chin and secured to the basinet with eyelet holes and loops through which a See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace was passed .

A rerebrace of plate defends the See also:

• OUTER

outer side of the upper arm, plain elbow-cops the elbow, and round bosses in the form of leopard heads guard the shoulder and the crook of the elbow . The fore-arm is covered with the plates of a vambrace which appears from under the hawberk sleeve . Large and decorated knee-cops cover the knees, ridged greaves the shins, and the upper part of the foot from pointed toe to ankle is fenced with those articulated and overlapping plates the perfection of which in the next century enabled the full-harnessed knight to move his body as freely as might an unarmed man . Under the plates the mail hose show themselves and the heels have rowelled spurs . He has a hawberk of mail whose front skirt ends in a point between the knees, the loose sleeves between wrist and elbow . Under this is a haketon of some soft material whose folds fall to a line above the height of the knee . Over the hawberk is a garment, perhaps of leather with a dagged skirt-edge, and over this again is a sleeveless gambeson or pour-point of leather or quilted work, studded and enriched . Over all is the sleeveless surcoat, the skirt before cut squarely off at the height of the See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork of the leg, the skirt behind falling to below the knee . The loose folds of this surcoat are gathered at the waist by a narrow belt, the sword See also:

• HANGING

hanging from a broader belt carried across the See also:

• HIP

hip . Before 1350 the long surcoat of the 13th century was still further shortened, the tails being cut off squarely with the front . The See also:

• FATE

fate of Sir John Chandos, who in 1369 stumbled on a slippery road, his long coat " armed with his arms " becoming tangled with his legs, points to the fact that an old soldier might cling to an old fashion . The See also:

• DESIRE

desire for a better defence than a steel cap and camail and a less cumbrous one than the great helm, in which the knight rode half stifled and half See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind, brought in as a fighting headpiece the basinet with a movable viser .

This is found throughout this century, disappearing in the next when the salet and its varieties displaced it . But there were many knights who still fought with the great helm covering basinet and camail, a fact which speaks eloquently of the mighty blows given in this warlike age . The many monumental See also:

• BRASSES, MONUMENTAL

brasses of the last half of the 14th century show us for the most part knights in basinet and camail with the face exposed, but their heads are commonly pillowed on the great helm and in any case the viser would hinder the artist's desire to show the knight's features . The fully-armed man of the latter half of the 14th centuryseems to have worn a rounded breastplate and a back-plate over his chain hawberk . See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer's Sir Thopas must always be cited for the defences of this age, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero wearing the quilted haketon next his shirt, and over that the habergeon, a lesser hawberk of chain mail . His last defence is a See also:

• FINE

fine hawberk "full strong of plate" showing that "hawberk" some-times served as a word for the body plates . Over all this is the " cote-armure " or surcoat . Many passages from the chroniclers show that the three coats of fence one over the other were in common use in the field, and See also:

• FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?)

Froissart tells a See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of a knight struck by a dart in such wise that the head pierced through his plates, his coat of mail and his haketon stuffed with See also:

• TWISTED

twisted See also:

• SILK

silk . The surcoat in the age of Edward III. became a scanty garment sitting tightly to the body, laced up the back or sides, the close skirts ending at the fork of the leg with a dagged or slittered edge . The waistbelt is rarely in sight, but the broad belt across the hips, on which the dagger comes to hang as a See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance to the sword, grows richer and heavier, the best work of the See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

goldsmith or silversmith being spent upon it . Arms and legs and feet become cased in plate of steel or studded leather, and before the mid-century the shoulder-plates, like the steel shoes, are of overlapping pieces and the elbow also moves easily under the same defence . (See fig .

7.) Such harness, ever growing more beautiful in its See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich details, serves our champions until the. beginning of the 15th century, when the fashion begins to turn . The scanty surcoat 13th tends to disappear . It may be that during the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter century. feuds and fierce slaughters of the Wars of the See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

Roses men were unwilling to display on their breasts the See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings by which their mortal foe might know them afar . The horseman's shield went with the surcoat, its disuse hastened by the perfection of armour, and the See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners of leaders remained as the only armorial signs commonly seen in war . But at jousts and tourneys, where See also:

• PERSONAL

personal distinction was eagerly sought, the loose See also:

• TABARD

tabard, which, after the middle of the century, bore the arms of the wearer on back, front and both sleeves, was still to be seen, with the crest of See also:

• PARCHMENT

parchment or leather towering above 3t' helm whose See also:

• MANTLE

mantle, from the ribbon-like See also:

• STRIP

strip of the early 13th century, had grown into a fluttering cloak with wildly slittered edge streaming out behind the charging knight . When a See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

score of years of this 15th century had run we find the knight closed in with plates, no edge of chain mail remaining in sight . The surcoat being gone we see him armed in breast and back plate, his loins covered by a skirt of " tonlets," as the defence of overlapping See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal bands comes to be named (fig . 8) . The chain camail has gone out of fashion, the basinet continuing itself with a chin and cheek plate which joins a See also:

• GORGET (O. Fr. gorgete, dim. of gorge, throat)

gorget of plate covering the See also:

• COLLAR

collar-bone, a movable viser shutting in the whole head with steel . The gussets of chain mail sewn into the leathern or See also:

• FUSTIAN

fustian doublet worn below the body armour are unseen even at the See also:

• GAP

gap at the hollow of the arm where the plates must be allowed to move freely, for a little plate, round, oval or oblong, is tagged to each side to fence the weak point . These plates often differ in size and shape one from the other, the sword-arm side carrying the smaller one . Fio .

6.-Brass of Sir John de Creke . From \Caller's Monu- See also:

• MENTAL

mental Brasses . John de Foxley . From See also:

• WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687)
• WALLER, LEWIS (186o- )
• WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1597-1668)

Waller's Monumental Brasses . 588 Soon after this the six or eight " tonlets " grow fewer, being continued on the lower edge by the so-called tuilles, small plates strapped to the tonlets and swinging with the movement of the legs . A fine suit of armour is shown in the monument of See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• OTTO

Otto IV. of Henneberg (fig . 9) . Knightly armour takes perhaps Otto IV. of Henneberg . its last expression of perfection in such a noble harness as that worn by Richard See also:

• BEAUCHAMP
• BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE

Beauchamp, See also:

• EARL

earl of See also:

• WARWICK
• WARWICK, EARLS OF
• WARWICK, RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, EARL OF (1382—1439)
• WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (1428—1471)
• WARWICK, SIR PHILIP (1609-1683)
• WARWICK, SIR ROBERT RICH, 2ND EARL OF (1587–1658)

Warwick, whose armed effigy was wrought between 1451 and 1454 (fig. lo) . In this we see the characteristic feature of the great elbow-cops, whose channelled and fluted edges overlapping vambrace and rerebrace become monstrous fan-like shapes in the brass of Richard Quartremayns, graven about 146o . At this time the harness of the left shoulder is often notably reinforced, as compared with that of the sword-arm shoulder . Towards the latter part of the century chain mail reappears as a skirt or See also:

• BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages)

breech of mail, showing itself under the diminished tonlets, and, when helm and gorget are removed, as a high-See also:

• STANDING

standing collar .

The See also:

• ARTICULATION (from Lat. articulare, to divide into joints)

articulation by overlapping plates extends even to the breastplate, whose front is thus in two or more pieces . Very long-necked rowel-spurs are often found, and the toes of the sabbatons or steel shoes are sharply pointed . The characteristic helmet of the latter half of the century is the salet or See also:

• SALADE, SALLET

salade, a large steel cap, whose edge is carried out from the brows and still more boldly at the back of the neck . Knights abandon the great helm in war, but it is perfected for use in the tilt-yard, taking for that purpose an enormous size, to enable two See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good inches of stuffing to come between head or face and the steel plate . Such a helm sits well down on the shoulders, to which it is locked before and behind by strong buckles or rivets . The note of the 15th century in armour is that of fantastically elaborate forms boldly outlined and a splendour of See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour which gained much from the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of wearing over the full harness short cloaks or rich coats turned up with furs, or from another fashion of covering the body plates or brigandines with rich velvets studded with gold . The details of the harness take a thousand curious shapes, and even amongst the simpler jacks and steel caps of the archers the same glorious variety is seen . If the note of the 15th century be variety of form, that of the 16th century, the last important See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter in the history of armour, is surface decoration, the harness of great folk atoning cetntm.y. in some measure for loss of the beautiful See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval sense of line by elaborate enrichment . Plain See also:

• ENGRAVING

engraving, See also:

• NIELLO (the Italian form of Lat. nigellum, diminutive of ?tiger, " black "; Late Gr. /IAAavbv)

niello, russet work, See also:

• GOLDEN

golden inlay and beaten ornament are common methods of en- richment . The great plume of See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich FIG. to . —Brass of feathers flows from the helmet crown Richard Beauchamp, of leaders in war . As in the reign of earl of Warwick .

Edward III., See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume's fashion affects From See also:

• STOTHARD, CHARLES ALFRED (1786—1821)
• STOTHARD, THOMAS (1755—1834)

Stothard's Monumental the forms of armour, the broad toe of the Ejjigies Henry VIII. See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe being imitated in steel, as the wide fluted skirts of the so-called See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian armour imitate the German fashion in See also:

• CIVIL

civil dress which the Imperial See also:

• HOST

host popularized through northern Europe (fig . II) . These skirts have been called " lamboys " by modern writers on military antiquities, but the From See also:

• HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903)

Hewitt's Arms and Armour . word seems an antiquarianism of no value, apparently a misreading of the word " jambeis " in some early document . So many notable examples of the armour of this 16th century are accessible in European collections, other illustrations occurring in great plenty, that its details See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call for little discussion; a fine and characteristic suit is that by the famous English armourer, See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob Topf (fig . 12), which belonged to Sir See also:

• CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher See also:

• HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT (1809-1886)
• HATTON, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1540–1591)

Hatton . Into this century the arquebusier See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

marches, demanding a chief place in the line of battle, although it is a common See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error that the improvement in fire-arms drove out the fully armed warrior, whose plates gave him no protection . Until the See also:

• RIFLE

rifle came to the soldier's hands, plate armour could easily be made shot-See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof . It was driven from the field by the new See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy which asked for long marches and rapid movements of armies . This century's armour for the tilt-yard gives such protection to the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion, with its many reinforcing pieces, that unless the caged helm were used—the same which cost Henry II. of France his See also:

• LIFE

life—the risks of the tilt-yard must have fallen much below those of the See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

polo-field . The horse with crinet, chafron and bards of steel was as well covered from harm . Before the end of the 16th century the full suit of war harness is an See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique survival .

Long boots take the place of greaves and steel shoes, and early in the 16th century the military pedants are heard to bewail the common laying aside of other pieces . The mounted See also:

• CAVALIER
• CAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740)

cavalier — cuirassieror pistolier- might take the field, even as late as the Great See also:

• REBELLION

Rebellion,armed at all points save the backs of the thighs and the legs below the knee; but a combed and brimmed cap, breast and back plate and tassets equipped the pikeman, and the musketeer would march without any metal on him save his headpiece, for it was soon found that heavily armed See also:

• MUS

mus- keteers, after a long trudge through summer dust or See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter mud, were readier to rest than to shoot . Everywhere there was revolt against the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of plates, and as early as 1593 Sir Richard See also:

• HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622)
• HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789)

Hawkins found that his adven- turers would not use even the light corslets provided by him, " es- teeming a pot of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine a better defence." Gervase See also:

• MARKHAM, GERVASE (or JERVIS) (1568?-1637)
• MARKHAM, MRS
• MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT (183o- )
• MARKHAM, WILLIAM (1719-1807)

Markham, in his Souldier's See also:

• ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin neuter plural accidentia, casual events)

Accidence of 1645, asks that at least the See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain of See also:

• CUIRASSIERS

cuirassiers should be armed " at all peeces, cap a pee, " but he would have found few 'such captains, and Markham is a great praiser of noble old custom . The famous figure of a pikeman of 1668 (fig . 13) in See also:

• ELTON, CHARLES ISAAC (1839–1900)

Elton's Art Military has steel cap, corslet and tassets, but he stands for a fashion dead or dying . The last noteworthy helmet was what is now termed the See also:

• LOBSTER (O.E. lopustre, lopystre, a corruption of Lat. locusta, lobster or other marine shell-fish; also a locust)

lobster-tail helmet, a headpiece with round top, flat brim before, a broad articulated brim behind, cheek-pieces hanging by straps and a See also:

• GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle)

grate of upright bars to cover the face, some having in place of the grate a movable nose-guard to be raised or lowered at will . The close resemblance of this helmet to that worn by the See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese, with whom the Dutch were then trading, is See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth remark, although each of the two pieces seems to have had its separate origin . Thus, save for a steel cap here and a corslet there, especially to be found amongst the See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards of sovereigns who must cling to something of antique tradition, armour departs out of the civilized See also:

• WORLD

world . When in the reign of See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria her mounted guardsmen were given back their breast and back plates, the last piece of body armour had been the tiny gilt crescent worn at suretvalof the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat by officers of foot, which crescent was the armour . shrunken See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of that great gorget of plate that came in with the 15th century . The shining plates of the Guards are See also:

• PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parada; cf. Span. parada, from Lat. parade, to prepare, equip, furnish)

parade pieces only, but a curious revival of an old defence was carried by English cavalry in the field at the end of the loth century, when small gussets of chain mail were attached to the shoulders of certain cavalrymen as a defence against sword cuts . Through all the age of modern warfare inventors have pressed the claims of various See also:

• BULLET (Fr. boulet, diminutive of boule, ball)

bullet-proof breastplates, but where they have been effective against rifle fire their weight has made them too heavy an addition to the soldier's burden .

(See, however, ARMOUR PLATES, ad fin.) Last of all we may reckon those See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret coats of mail which are said to be worn on occasion by modern rulers in dread of the See also:

• ASSASSIN (properly Hashish n, from Hashish, the opiate made from the juice of hemp leaves)

assassin . The London detective See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department has such coats of fence in its armoury ; and. on the other side it may be remembered that the See also:

• KELLY, EDWARD (1854–188o)
• KELLY, HUGH (1739–1777)
• KELLY, MICHAEL (1762–1826)
• KELLY, SIR FITZROY (1796–1880)

Kelly gang of bushrangers, driven to See also:

• BAY

bay, were found to have forged suits of plate for them-selves out of sheets of See also:

• BOILER

boiler-iron . Ancient arms and armour are now eagerly sought by European and See also:

• AMERICAN

American collectors, and high prices are paid down for every noteworthy piece . The See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply is assisted by the efforts of many forgers of false pieces, the most cunning of whom bring Co/See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea all archaeological skill to their aid, and few great dons. national or private collections are free from some example of this See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . For the genuine pieces competition runs high . Suits of plate of the earliest period may be sought in vain, and the greatest collectors may hardly See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope for such a panoply of the late See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic period as that which is the ornament of the See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace collection . Even this famous harness is not wholly free from suspicion of restoration . Armour of the latter half of the 16th century, however, often appears in the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale-rooms and is found in many private collections, although the " ancestral armour " which decorates so many ancient halls in England is generally the plates and pots which served the pike-men of the 17th-century See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia . It is not hard to understand this scarcity of ancient pieces . In the first place it must be remembered that the fully armed man was always a rare figure in war, and only the rich could engage in the costly follies of the later tournaments . The novelists have done much to encourage the belief that most men of See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle rank rode to the wars lance in hand, locked up in full harness of plate; but the country See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman, serving as light horseman or mounted See also:

• ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856— )

archer, would hold himself well armed had he a quilted See also:

• JACK

jack or See also:

• BRIGANDINE

brigandine and a basinet or salet . Men armed cap a pee See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd the illuminations of See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle books, the artists having the same tastes as the boy who decorates his Latin See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar with battles which are hand-to-hand conflicts of epauletted generals .

Monuments and brasses also show these fully armed men, but here again we must recognize the tendency which made the last of the cheap miniaturists endow their clients lavishly with heavy See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch-chains and rings . As late as the 18th century the portrait painters See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew their military or See also:

• NAVAL

naval sitters in the breastplates and pauldrons, vambraces and rerebraces of an earlier age . Ancient See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills and inventories, save those of great folk or military adventurers, have scanty reference to complete harnesses . Ringed hawberks, in a See also:

• DAMP

damp northern See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, will not survive From The Compleat Body of the Art Military, by Lieut.-See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col . Elton (1668) . way to the See also:

• MAGAZINE

magazine rifle about 1886-1890 . (See RIFLE.) Neither breech-loaders nor revolvers, however, are inventions of modern date . Both were known in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany as early as the close of the 15th century . There are in the Musee d'Artillerie at Paris See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel-See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock arquebuses of the 16th century which are breech-loaders; and there is, in the Tower armoury, a revolver with the old matchlock, the date of which is about 1550 . A German See also:

• ARQUEBUS (also called harquebus, hackbut, &c.)

arquebus of the 16th century, in the museum of See also:

• SIGMARINGEN

Sigmaringen, is a revolver of seven barrels . Nor is rifling a new thing in fire-arms, for there was a rifled arquebus of the 15th century, in which the balls were driven See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home by a See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

mallet, and a patent was taken out in England an See also:

• INTEREST

interest in medieval antiquities became common amongst for rifling in 1635 . All these systems were thus known at an early educated men, and for most contemporaries of Dr See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson a I period in the history of fire-arms, but for want of the minutely medieval helm was a barbarous curiosity exciting the same measure of mild interest as does the Zulu knobkerry seen by us as we pass a pawnbroker's window .

(O . BA.) 7 . Fire-arms . (For the development of See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon, see See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

ARTILLERY and See also:

• ORDNANCE (a syncopated form of " ordinance " or " ordonnance," so spelt in this sense since the 17th century)

ORDNANCE.)—Hand-cannons appear almost simultaneously with the larger bombards . They were made by the Flemings in the 14th century . An early instance of the use of hand fire-arms in England is the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of Huntercombe See also:

• MANOR

Manor in 1375 . These were simply small cannon, provided' with a stock of wood, and fired by the application of a match to the See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch-hole . During the 15th century the hand-See also:

• GUN

gun was steadily improved, and its use became more general . Edward IV., landing in England in 1471 to reconquer his See also:

• THRONE

throne, brought with him a force of Burgundian hand-gun men (mercenaries), and in 1476 the Swiss at See also:

• MORAT (Ger. Murten)

Morat had no less than 6000 of their men thus armed . The prototype of the modern military weapon is the arquebus (q.v.), a form of which was afterwards called in England the See also:

• CALIVER

caliver . Various See also:

• DATES

dates are given for the introduction .of the arquebus, which owed many of its details to the perfected cross-bow which it superseded . The Spanish army in the Italian wars at the beginning of the 16th century was the first to make full and effective use of the new weapon, and thus to make the fire See also:

• ACTION

action of infantry a serious See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the decision of battles .

The Spaniards also took the next step in advance . The See also:

• MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.)

musket (q.v.) was heavier and more powerful than the arquebus, and, in the hands of the duke of See also:

• ALVA
• ALVA, or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF, (1508-1583)

Alva's army in the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands, so conclusively proved its superiority that it at once replaced its See also:

• RIVAL

rival in the armies of Europe . Both the arquebus and the musket had a touch-hole on the right side of the barrel, with a See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan for the priming, with which a lighted See also:

• QUICK

quick match was brought in contact by pressing a trigger . The musket, on account of its weight, was provided with a long rest, forked in the upper part and furnished with a spike to stick in the ground . The matchlock (long-barrelled matchlocks are still used by various uncivilized peoples, notably in India) was the typical weapon of the soldier for two centuries . The class of hand! fire-arms provided with an arrangement for striking a spark; to ignite the See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder charge begins with the wheel-lock . This See also:

• WICK

Wick was in-vented at See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg in 1515, but was seldom applied tothe arquebus and musket on account of the costliness of its mechanism and the uncertainty of its action . The early forms of flint-lock (snaphance) were open to the same objections, and the fire-lock (as the flint-lock was usually called) remained for many years after its introduction the armament of special troops only, till about the beginning of the 18th century it finally superseded the old matchlock . Thenceforward the fire-lock (called familiarly in England " See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown Bess ") formed with the bayonet (q.v.) the armament of all infantry, and the fire-arms carried by other troops were constructed on the same principle . Flint-lock muskets were supplanted about 1830-1840 by the percussion musket, in which a fulminate cap was used . A Scottish See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy-man, See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Forsyth, invented this method of ignition in 1807, but it was not till 1820 that it began to come into general use . (SEE GUN.) The See also:

• SYSTEM

system of firing the charge by a fulminate was followed by the invention of the See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle-gun (q.v.) .

The muzzle-loading rifle, employed by special troops since about 1800, came into general use in the armies of Europe about 1854-1860 . It was superseded, as a result of the success of the needle-gun in the war of 1866, by the breech-loading rifle, this in its turn giving long neglect, and many of them must have been cut in pieces for burnishers or for the mail skirts and gussets attached to the later arming doublets . As the fashion of plate armour changed, the smith might adapt an old harness to the new taste, but more often it would be cast aside . Men to whom the sight of a steel coat called up the business of their daily life wasted no sentimentality over an obsolete piece . The early antiquaries might have saved us many priceless things, but it was not until a few virtuosi of the 18th century were taken with the Gothic See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy that popular archaeology dealt with aught but Greek statuary and Roman See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions . The loth century was well advanced before accurate 'workmanship required and, above all, of a satisfactory firing arrangement, they were left in an undeveloped state until modern times . The earliest pistols were merely shorter hand-guns, modified for mounted men, and provided with a straight stock which was held against the breastplate (poitrinal or See also:

• PETRONEL

petronel) . The long-barrelled See also:

• PISTOL

pistol was the typical weapon of the cavalry of the 16th century . (See CAVALRY.) With the revival of See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics initiated by Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

Adolphus the length of the pistol barrel became less and less, and its stock was then shaped for the hand alone . (See PISTOL.) (C . F .