See also:

• ARTIODACTYLA (from Gr. &prws, even, and SatcrVJws, a finger or toe, "even-toed")
• ARTIODACTYLA, PECORA, TYLOPODA

ARTIODACTYLA (from Gr. &prws, even, and SatcrVJws, a See also:

• FINGER

finger or toe, "even-toed")  , the suborder of ungulate mammals in which the central (and in some cases the only) pair of toes in each See also:

• FOOT

foot are arranged symmetrically on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• LINE

line See also:

• RUNNING

running through the axes of the limbs . As contrasted with the See also:

• PERISSODACTYLA (i.e. odd-toed)

Perissodactyla living, and in a See also:

• GREAT

great degree See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, See also:

• ARTIODACTYLA (from Gr. &prws, even, and SatcrVJws, a finger or toe, "even-toed")
• ARTIODACTYLA, PECORA, TYLOPODA

Artiodactyla are characterized by the following structural features . The upper premolar and molar See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth are not alike, the former being single and the latter two-lobed; and the last See also:

• LOWER

lower molar of both first and second dentition is almost invariably three-lobed . Nasal bones not See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded posteriorly . No alisphenoid See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal . Dorsal and lumbar vertebrae together always nineteen, though the former may vary from twelve to fifteen . Femur without third trochanter . Third and See also:

• FOURTH

fourth digits of both feet almost equally See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, and their terminal phalanges flattened on their inner or contiguous surfaces, so that each is not symmetrical in itself, but when the two are placed together they See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a figure symmetrically disposed to a line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn between them . Or, in other words, the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis or median line of the whole foot is a line drawn between the third and fourth digits (fig . I) . Lower articular See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the astragalus divided into two nearly equal facets, one for the navicular and a second for the cuboid See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone . The calcaneum with an articular facet for the lower end of the fibula .

See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

Stomach almost always more or less complex . See also:

• COLON
• COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL)

Colon convoluted . Caecum small . See also:

• PLACENTA (Lat. for a cake)

Placenta diffused or cotyledonary . Teats either few and inguinal, or numerous and abdominal . Artiodactyla date from the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, when they appear to have been less numerous than the Perissodactyla, although at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day they are immeasurably ahead of that See also:

• GROUP

group, and form indeed the dominant ungulates . As regards the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual specialization and development of the See also:

• MODERN

modern types, the following features are noteworthy . r . As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or bunodont (f3ovvos, a hillock) type of molar into one in which the four See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main tubercles, or columns, have assumed a crescentic form, whence this type is termed selenodont (11eXitvrl, the new See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon) . Further, there is the modification of the latter from a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-crowned, or brachyodont type, to one in which the columns are tall, constituting the hypsodont, or hypsiselenodont, type . It is noteworthy, however, that in some instances there appears to have been a See also:

• RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri, to go)

retrograde modification from the selenodont towards the bunodont type, the See also:

• HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

hippopotamus being a See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in point . Other modifications are the loss of the upper incisors; the development of the canines into projecting tusks; and the loss of the anterior premolars .

2 . As regards the limbs . Reduction of the ulna from a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in which it coalesces more or less firmly with the See also:

• RADIUS

radius . Reduction of the fibula till nothing but its lower extremity remains . Reduction and final loss of See also:

• OUTER

outer pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the two See also:

• MIDDLE

middle digits to form a See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon-bone . See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union of the navicular and cuboid, and sometimes the ectocuneiform bone, of the See also:

• TARSUS (mod. Tersous)

tarsus . 3 . See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

Change of form of the odontoid See also:

• PROCESS

process of the second or axis vertebrae from a See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone to a hollow See also:

• HALF

half-See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder . 4 . Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual complication of form of antlers . 5 . By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating See also:

• FUNCTION

function superadded .

Modification of placenta from See also:

• SIMPLE

simple diffused to cotyledonary form . b i$ A, See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

Pig (See also:

• SUS

Sus scrota) . U, Ulna. u, Unciform . B, Red See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer (Cervus elaphus) . R, Radius. m, Magnum . c, See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

Cuneiform. td, Trapezoid . C, See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

Camel (Camelus bactrianus) . 1, Lunar . s, Scaphoid . In the See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep and the Camel the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound bone, supporting the two main (or only) toes is the cannon-bone . The See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive Artiodactyla thus probably had the typical number (44) of incisor, canine and molar teeth, brachyodont molars, conical odontoid process, four distinct toes on each foot, with metacarpal, metatarsal and all the tarsal bones distinct, and no frontal appendages . As regards See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, the first group is that of the See also:

• PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle)

Pecora, or Cotylophora, in which the cheek-teeth are selenodont, but there are no upper incisors or canine-like premolars, Pecora .

while upper canines are generally absent, though some-times largely developed . Inferior incisors, three on each side with an incisiform canine in contact with them . Cheek-teeth consisting of in continuous See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . Auditory bulla simple and hollow within . Odontoid process of second vertebra in the form of a See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent, hollow above . Lower extremity of the fibula represented by a distinct malleolar bone articulating with the outer surface of the lower end of the See also:

• TIBIA

tibia . Third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals confluent into cannon-bones (fig. r B), and the toes enclosed in hoofs . Outer toes small and rudimentary, or in some cases entirely suppressed; their metacarpal or metatarsal bones never complete . Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus See also:

• UNITED

united . The See also:

• SKULL

skull generally lacks a sagittal See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest; and the condyle of the lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw is transversely elongated . Horns or antlers usually present, at least hi the male See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . See also:

• LEFT

Left brachial artery arising from a See also:

• COMMON

common innominate See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk,instead of coming off separately from the aortic See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch .

Stomach with four complete cavities . Placenta cotyledonous . Teats 2 or 4 . The group at the present day is divided into Giraffidae (See also:

• GIRAFFE

giraffe and See also:

• OKAPI

okapi), Cervidae (deer), Antilocapridae (See also:

• PRONGBUCK, PRONGHORN, or (in America)

prongbuck), and See also:

• BOVIDAE

Bovidae (oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, &c.) . (See PECORA.) The second group is represented at the present day by the camels (Camelus) of the Old, and the llamas (Lama) of the New See also:

• WORLD

World, collectively constituting the See also:

• FAMILY

family Camelidae . They derive their name of See also:

• TYLOPODA (Gr. for boss-footed, in reference to the cushion-like pads forming the soles of the feet)

Tylopoda (" See also:

• BOSS

boss-footed ") T.vlopoaa. from the circumstance that the feet form large See also:

• CUSHION (from O. Fr. coisson, coussin; according to the New English Dict., from Lat. coxa, a hip; others say from Lat. culcita, a quilt)

cushion-like pads, supporting the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the See also:

• BODY

body, while the toes have broad nails on their upper surface only, instead of being encased in hoofs . The cheek-teeth are selenodont, and one pair of upper incisors is retained, while some of the anterior premolars assume a canine-like shape, and are separated from the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the cheek-series . Auditory bulla filled with honeycombed bony See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue . Odontoid process of second vertebra semi-cylindrical; skull with a sagittal crest; and the condyle of the lower jaw rounded . Third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals (which are alone present) fused into cannon-bones for the greater See also:

• PART

part of their length, but diverging inferiorly (fig. r, C) and with their articular surfaces for the toes smooth, instead of ridged 's in the Pecora . Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus distinct . No horns or antlers .

Stomach, although complex, differing essentially from that of the Pecora . Placenta diffuse, without cotyledons . Teats few . (See TYLOPODA.) In the same sectional group is included the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICAN

American family of oreodonts (Oreodontidae), which are much. more primitive ruminants, with shorter necks and limbs, the full series of 44 teeth, all in apposition, and the metacarpal and metatarsal bones See also:

• SEPARATE

separate, and the toes generally of more normal type, although sometimes claw-like . (See See also:

• OREODON (i.e. " hillock-tooth ")

OREODON.) The Eocene American genus Homacodon is regarded as representing a third family group, the Homacodontidae (= Pantoleslidae), in which the molars were of a bunodont type, and approximate to those of the Condylarthra from which this family appears to have sprung, and to have given origin on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand to the Oreodontidae, and on the other to the Camelidae . The family is represented in the Lower, or Wasatch, Eocene by Trigonolestes, in the Middle (Bridger) Eocene by Hemacodon (Pantolestes), and in the Upper (Uinta) Eocene by Bunomeryx . The third group is that represented by the chevrotains or See also:

• MOUSE

mouse-deer, forming the family Tragulidae, with Tragulus in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• ASIA

Asia and Dorcatherium (or Hyomoschus) Tragulina. in See also:

• EQUATORIAL

equatorial See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . The cheek-teeth are selenodont, as in the two preceding See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups; there are no upper incisors, but there are long, narrow and pointed upper canines, which attain a large See also:

• SIZE

size in the See also:

• MALES

males; the lower canines are incisor-like, as in the Pecora, and there are no caniniform premolars in either jaw . Cheek-teeth in a continuous series consisting of p.j, m.~- . Odontoid process of axis conical . Fibula complete . Four complete toes on each foot .

The middle metacarpals and metatarsals generally confluent, the outer ones (second and fifth) slender but complete, i.e. extending from the carpus or tarsus to the See also:

• DIGIT (Lat. digit us, finger)

digit . Navicular, cuboid and ectocuneiform bones of tarsus united . Auditory bulla of skull filled with cancellar tissue . No frontal appendages . Ruminating, but the stomach with only three distinct compartments, the maniplies or third cavity of the stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary . Placenta diffused . (See See also:

• CHEVROTAIN

CHEVROTAIN.) In this See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place must be mentioned the extinct Oligocene See also:

• EUROPEAN

European group typified by the well-known genus Anoplotlzerium of the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum-quarries, and hence termed Anoplotherina, although the alternative See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title Dichobunoidea has been suggested . It includes the two families Anoplotheriidae and Diclzobunidae, of which the first died out with the Oligocene, while the second may have given origin to the Tragulina and perhaps the Pecora . There is the full series of 44 teeth, generally without any gaps, and most of the bones of the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton are separate and complete; while, in many instances at any See also:

• RATE

rate, the tail v'as much longer than in any existing ungulates, and the whole bodily form C A B Anoplo.. therina . approximated to that of a carnivore . The upper molars, which may be either selenodont or buno-selenodont, carry five cusps each, instead of the four characteristic of all the preceding groups; and they are all very See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-crowned, so as to expose the whole of the valleys between the cusps . In Anoplotherium, some of the See also:

• SPECIES

species of which were larger than tapirs, there were either two or three toes, the latter number being almost unique among the Artiodactyla .

Allied genera are Diplobune and Dacrytherium . The Dichobunidae include the genus Dichobune, of which the species were small animals with buno-selenodont molars . Xiphcdon and Dichodon represent another type with cutting premolars and selenodont molars; while Caenotherium and Plesiomeryx form yet another See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, with resemblances to the ruminants . The most interesting genera are, however, the Upper Oligocene and Lower See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene Gelocus and Prodremotherium, which have perfectly selenodont teeth, and the third and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal bones respectively fused into an imperfect cannon-bone, with the reduction of the lateral See also:

• META

meta-carpals and metatarsals to See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere remnants of their upper and lower extremities . While Gelocus exhibits a marked approximation to the Tragulidac, Prodremotherium comes nearer to the Cervidae, of which it not improbably indicates the ancestral type . The Dichobunidae may be regarded as occupying a position analogous to that of the Homacodontidae in the Tylopoda, and like the latter, are probably the See also:

• DIRECT

direct descendants of Condylarthra . The last See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the Artiodactyla is that of the See also:

• SUINA

Suina, represented at the present day by the pigs (Suidae), and the See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

soma. hippopotamuses(Hippopotamidae), and in past times by the Anthracotheriidae, in which may probably be included the Elotheriidae . In the existing members of the group the cheek-teeth approximate to the bunodont type, although showing signs of being degenerate modifications of the selenodont modification . There is at least one pair of upper incisors, while the full series of 44 teeth may be present . The metacarpals and metatarsals are generally distinct (fig . I A), and never fuse into a complete cannon-bone; and the navicular and cuboid bones of the tarsus are separate . The odontoid process of the second vertebra is pig-like: and the tibia and fibula and radius and ulna are severally distinct .

The stomach is simple or some-what complex, and the placenta diffused . The Suidae include the Old World pigs (Suinae) and the American peccaries (Dicotylinae), and are characterized by the snout terminating in a fleshy disk-like expansion, in the midst of which are perforated the nostrils; while the toes are enclosed in See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp hoofs, of which the lateral ones do not See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch the ground . There is a caecum . The Dicotylinae differ from the Suinae in that the upper canines are directed downwards (instead of curving upwards) and have sharp cutting-edges, while the toes are four in front and three behind (instead of four on each foot), and the stomach is complex instead of simple . In the Old World a large number of fossil forms are known, of which the earliest is the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian Eocene Geniohyus . Originally the family was an Old World type, but in the Miocene it gained See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access into North See also:

• AMERICA

America, where the earliest form is Bathriolabis, an ancestral See also:

• PECCARY

peccary showing signs of See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with the European Miocene genus Palaeochoerus . (See See also:

• SWINE

SWINE and PECCARY.) The Hippopotainidae are an exclusively Old World group, in which the muzzle is broad and rounded and quite unlike that of the Suidae, while the crowns of the cheek-teeth form a distinctly See also:

• TREFOIL (Lat. trif olium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trk/le, Ger. Dreiblatt and Dreiblattbogen)

trefoil See also:

• PATTERN

pattern, when partially worn, which is only foreshadowed See also:

• ARTOIS

ARTOIS in those of the latter . The short and broad teeth terminate in four subequal toes, protected by short rounded hoofs, and all reaching the ground . The hinder end of the lower jaw is provided with a deep descending flange . Both incisors and canines are devoid of roots and grow throughout See also:

• LIFE

life, the canines, and in the typical species one pair of lower incisors, growing to an immense size . The stomach is complex; but there is no caecum . Although now exclusively See also:

• AFRICAN

African, the family (of which all the representatives may be included in the single genus Hippopotamus, with several subgeneric groups) is represented in the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and the Lower Pliocene of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India .

Its place of origin cannot yet be determined . The extinct Anthracotheriidae were evidently nearly allied to the Hippopotamidae, of which they are in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the ancestral stock . They agree, for instance, with that family in the presence of a descending flange at the hinder end of each side of the lower jaw; but their dentition is of a more generalized type, comprising the full series of 44 teeth, among which the incisors and canines are of normal form, but specially enlarged, and developing roots in the usual manner . The molars are partially selenodont in the typical genus See also:

• ANTHRACOTHERIUM (” coal-animal,” so called from the fact of the remains first described having been obtained from the Tertiary lignite-beds of Europe)

Anthracotherium, with five cusps, or columns, on the crowns of those of the upper jaw, which are nearly square . The genus has a very wide See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, extending from Europe through Asia to North America, and occurring in strata which are of Oligocene and Miocene See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . In Ancodon (Hyopotamus) the cusps on the molars are taller, so that the dentition is more decidedly selenodont; the distribution of this genus includes not only Europe, Asia and North Africa, but also See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt where it occurs in Upper Eocene beds in See also:

• COMPANY

company with the European genus Rhagatherium, which is nearer Anthracotherium . On the other hand, in Merycopotamus, of the Lower Pliocene of India and See also:

• BURMA

Burma, the upper molars have lost the fifth intermediate See also:

• CUSP (Lat. cuspis, a spear, point)

cusp of Ancodon; and thus, although highly selenodont, might be easily modified, by a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of retrograde development, into the trefoil-columned molars of Hippopotamus . In the above genera, so far as is known, the feet were four-toed, although with the lateral digits relatively small; but in Elotherium (or Entelodon), from the Lower Miocene of Europe and the Oligocene of North America, the two lateral digits in each foot had disappeared . This is the more remarkable seeing that Elotherium may be regarded as a kind of bunodont Anthracotherium . It shows the characteristic hippopotamus-flange to the lower jaw, but has also a large descending process from the jugal bone of the zygomatic arch of the skull . Finally, we have in the Pliocene of India the genus Tetraconodon, remarkable for the enormous size attained by the bluntly conical premolars; as the molars are purely bunodont, this genus seems to be a See also:

• LATE

late and specialized survivor of a primitive type . (R .