ASSAM  , a former See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, which was amalgamated in 1905 with " Eastern See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal and Assam " (q.v.) . See also:

• AREA

Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop . (1901 ) 6,126,343 . The province of Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on the extreme frontier of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, with See also:

• BHUTAN

Bhutan and See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet beyond it on the N., and See also:

• BURMA

Burma and See also:

• MANIPUR

Manipur on the E . It comprises the valleys of the See also:

• BRAHMAPUTRA

Brahmaputra and See also:

• SURMA, or BARAK

Surma See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, together with the mountainous See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed which intervenes between them . It is situated between 24° o' and 28° 17' N. See also:

• LAT

lat., and between 89° 46' and 97° 5' E. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . It is bounded on the N. by the eastern See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the See also:

• GREAT

great Himalayan range, the frontier tribes from See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east being successively Bhutias, Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the N.E. by the See also:

• MISHMI

Mishmi hills, which sweep See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Brahmaputra valley; on the E. by the unexplored mountains that See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the frontier of Burma, by the hills occupied by the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Naga tribes and by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of Manipur; on the S. by the Lushai hills, the state of See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill See also:

• TIPPERA (Tripura)

Tippera, and the Bengal See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal districts of See also:

• MYMENSINGH, or MAIMANSINGH

Mymensingh and See also:

• RANGPUR, or RUNGPORE

Rangpur, the state of Kuch See also:

• BEHAR, or BIHAR

Behar and See also:

• JALPAIGURI, or JULPIGOREE

Jalpaiguri district . Natural Divisions.—Assam is naturally divided into three distinct tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and the hill ranges between the two . The Brahmaputra valley is an alluvial See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, about 450' M. in length, with an See also:

• AVERAGE

average breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and west . To the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of the Himalayas, the See also:

• LOWER

lower ranges of which rise abruptly from the plain; to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is the great elevated See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau or See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of plateaus known as the Assam range . The various portions of this range are called by the names of the; tribes who inhabit them—the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia, the North See also:

• CACHAR, or KACHAR

Cachar and the Naga hills . The range as a whole is. joined at its eastern extremity by the Patkai to the Himalayan See also:

• SYSTEM

system, and by the mountains of Manipur to the See also:

• ARAKAN

Arakan Yoma .

The highest points in the range are Nokrek See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak (4600 ft.) in the Garo hills, See also:

• SHILLONG

Shillong; peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi-Jaintia hills, and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills . South of, the range comes the third See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the province, the Surma valley, comprising the two districts of Cachar and See also:

• SYLHET

Sylhet . The Surma valley is much smaller than the Brahmaputra valley, covering only 7506 against 24,283 sq. m.; its mean See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation is much lower and its rivers are more sluggish . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Aspects.—Assam is a fertile See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of valleys, with the great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the Son of Brahma) flowing down its See also:

• MIDDLE

middle, and an See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite number of tributaries and watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . The Brahmaputra spreads out in a See also:

• SHEET

sheet of See also:

• WATER

water several See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles broad during the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of islands in its See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to the north of the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes not far from the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great See also:

• RIVER

river of See also:

• CAMBODIA

Cambodia, it enters Assam by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and accumulations of rocks . The See also:

• GORGE

gorge, situated in See also:

• LAKHIMPUR

Lakhimpur district, through which the southernmost See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time immemorial been held in reverence by the See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus . It is called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda; and although the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by thousands of devotees . After a rapid course westwards down the whole length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of i800 m. in the See also:

• BAY

Bay of Bengal . Its first tributaries in Assam, after See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi hills on the north, and the Tengapam and Dihing, which take their rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east . Shortly afterwards it receives the Dibang, flowing from the north-east; but its See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its origin, under the name of the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the See also:

• SUTLEJ

Sutlej, flows in a direction precisely.opposite to that river, and traversing the tableland of Tibet, at the back of the great See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya range, falls into the Brahmaputra in 27° 48' N. lat., 95° 26' E. long., after a course of nearly See also:

• I000

i000 m . Doubts were long entertained whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the continuation of the Tsangpo, but these were practically set at See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest by the voyage of F .

J . Needham in 1886 . Below the confluence, the See also:

• UNITED

united stream flows in a south-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts of Lakhimpur and See also:

• DARRANG

Darrang, situated on its See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• BANK

bank, and those of See also:

• SIBSAGAR

Sibsagar and See also:

• NOWGONG

Nowgong on the south; and finally bisecting See also:

• KAMRUP

Kamrup, it crosses over the frontier of the province and passes into Bengal . In its course it receives on the See also:

• LEFT

left side the Dihing, a river having its rise at the south-eastern See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the province; and lower down, on the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the See also:

• BURI, or BURS

Buri Lohit, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 6o m. below the point of divergence, bearing with it the additional See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Subansiri, flowing from Tibet . A second offset, under the name of the Kalang river, rejoins the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent stream a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance above the See also:

• TOWN

town of See also:

• GAUHATI

Gauhati . The remaining rivers are too numerous to be particularized . The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no considerable current until May or See also:

• JUNE

June . Among the islands formed by the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Majulii or the Great See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, as it is called by way of pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence . This island extends 55 M. in length by about to in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra on the south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west . In the upper See also:

• PART

part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra enters, the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the See also:

• BASE

base to the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-See also:

• LINE

line . On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow See also:

• STRIP

strip of plain rises almost imperceptibly to the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the hills . Gigantic reeds and See also:

• GRASSES

grasses occupy the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low lands near the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the great river; expanses of fertile See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice-See also:

• LAND

land come next; a little higher up, dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trees of great See also:

• SIZE

size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior table-land and mountains .

The country in the vicinity of the large rivers is See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle, with the exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either rmanent marshes or are covered with water during the rains . Jungle will not grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water, reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation . On or near such open spaces are collected all the villages . As the traveller proceeds farther down the valley, the countrygradually, opens out into wide plains . In the western district of Kamrup the country forms one great expanse, with a few elevated tracts here and there, varying from zoo to 800 ft. in height . Soils.—The See also:

• SOIL

soil is exceedingly See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and well adapted to all kinds of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam reposing on a See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey sandy See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, though occasionally it exhibits a See also:

• LIGHT

light yellow clayey texture . The land may be divided into three great classes . The first division is composed of hills, the largest See also:

• GROUP

group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains, which stand out upon the plain . Another set of hills project into the valley at Gauhati . But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs from the Khasi chain than isolated See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups belonging to the plains . The other hills are all isolated and of small extent . The second division of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies above the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra .

The channels of some of the hill streams, however, are of so little See also:

• DEPTH

depth that the highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods . On the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the beds of the hill streams . The breadth of these plains is in some places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of many miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills that protect them from the aberrations of the river . The alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be considered as the third See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general division of lands in Assam . These lands are very extensive, and See also:

• PRESENT

present every degree of fertility and elevation, from the vast chars of pure See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, subject to See also:

• ANNUAL

annual inundations, to the See also:

• FIRM

firm islands, so raised by See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift-sand and the accumulated remains of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• MATTER

matter, as no longer to be liable to See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood . The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of sand newly washed forward by the current during floods, become converted into rich pasture is astonishing . As the freshets begin to lessen andretire into the deeper channels, the currents See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form natural embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the See also:

• ACTION

action of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun's rays . It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal and vegetable matter . This is soon impregnated with the seeds of the Saccharum spontaneum and other grasses that have been partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water . Such places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds, which resort thither in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and See also:

• MOLLUSCA

mollusca . As vegetation begins to appear, herds of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted by the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and in their turn contribute to manure the soil . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—Geographically the Assam hills See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in the angle between the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they belong to neither .

The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the newer beds show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese folding—on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the plateau they are nearly See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal, but along the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern margin they are See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent sharply downwards in a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple monoclinal See also:

• FOLD

fold . The greater part of the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass is composed of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists . The Sylhet traps near the southern margin are correlated with the See also:

• RAJMAHAL

Rajmahal traps of Bengal . The older rocks are overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of See also:

• COAL

coal, the whole series thinning rapidly towards the north and thus indicating the neighbourhood of the old See also:

• SHORE

shore-line . The fossils are very similar to those of the South Indian Cretaceous, but very different from those of the corresponding beds in the See also:

• NERBUDDA, or NARBADA

Nerbudda valley . The overlying See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary series includes nummulitic beds and valuable seams of coal . The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to the Burmese system of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain chains (see BURMA), and consist largely of Tertiary beds, including the great coal seams of Upper Assam . The Assam valley is covered by the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra . Of the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal . Compared with the See also:

• GONDWANA

Gondwana coal of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of India the Tertiary coal seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and their extraordinary thickness . The "Thick Seam " of Margherita, in Upper Assam, averages 50 ft., and in some places reaches as much as 8o ft . The average percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal was 3.8 as against 16.3 in 17 assays of Raniganj coal .

The coal seams are commonly associated with See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum springs . See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold is found in the alluvial deposits, but the results of exploration have not been very promising . Earthquakes.—Assam is liable to earthquakes . There was a severe See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake in Cachar on the loth of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1869, a severe See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock in Shillong and Gauhati in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1875, and one in See also:

• SILCHAR

Silchar in See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which occurred on the evening of 12th June 1897 . The area of this seismic disturbance extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to See also:

• SIKKIM

Sikkim; but the See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills . In the station of Shillong every See also:

• MASONRY

masonry See also:

• BUILDING

building was levelled to the ground . Throughout the country See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, and the beds of rivers were dislocated . In the hills there were terrible landslips, which wrecked the little See also:

• CHERRAPUNJI

Cherrapunji railway and caused 600 deaths . The See also:

• TOTAL

total mortality recorded was 1542, including two Europeans at Shillong . The levels of the country were so affected that the towns of See also:

• GOALPARA

Goalpara and Barpeta became almost uninhabitable during the rains . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology of Assam presents some interesting features . Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes .

Many are caught by means of See also:

• FEMALE

female elephants previously tamed, and trained to See also:

• DECOY

decoy See also:

• MALES

males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to captivity . A considerable number are tamed and exported from Assam every See also:

• YEAR

year . Many are killed every year in the forests for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of the See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory which they furnish . The See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• KEDDAH (from Hindu Khedna, to chase)

keddah See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment from See also:

• DACCA

Dacca captures large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of elephants in the province, and the right of See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting is also sold by See also:

• AUCTION

auction to private bidders . The annual catch of . The latter averages about two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred . The See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros is found in the denser parts of the forests and generally in swampy places . This animal is hunted and killed for its skin and its See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn . The skin affords the material for the best See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

shields . The horn is sacred in the eyes of the natives . Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated that, if caught See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes strongly attached to his keeper . Tigers abound, and though many are annually destroyed for the sake of the government See also:

• REWARD

reward, their numbers seem scarcely, if at all, to diminish .

Leopards and bears are numerous; and the sand-See also:

• BADGER

badger, the Arctonyx collaris of See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, a small animal somewhat resembling a See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear, but having the snout, eyes and tail of a hog, is found . Among the most formidable animals known is the wild See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo or See also:

• GAUR
• GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI

gaur which is of great size, strength and fierceness . The See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox and the See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal exist, and the wild hog is very abundant . Goats, See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer of various kinds, See also:

• HARES

hares, and two or three See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety . The See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine, the See also:

• SQUIRREL
• SQUIRREL (Fr. ecureuil)

squirrel, the See also:

• CIVET

civet See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat, the See also:

• ICHNEUMON (Gr. ixveu)

ichneumon and the See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter are See also:

• COMMON

common . The birds are too various to admit of enumeration . Wild See also:

• GAME

game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe and water-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl of many descriptions make the country a tempting See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field for the sportsman . Vultures and other birds of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey ,are met with . Crocodiles (commonly called alligators) swarm in all parts of the Brahmaputra, and are very. destructive to the fish, of which hundreds of varieties are found, and which supply a valuable See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of food . The most destructive of the ferae nalurae, as regards human See also:

• LIFE

life, are, however, the See also:

• SNAKES

snakes . Of these, several poisonous species exist, including the See also:

• COBRA (Naja tripudians)

cobra and karait (Naja tripudians and See also:

• BUN

Bun gurus caeruleus) . "The bite of a fairly-grown healthy See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent of either of these species is deadly; and it is ascertained that more deaths occur from snake-bite than from all the other wild-beasts put together .

Among the non-poisonous serpents the See also:

• PYTHON

python ranks first . This is an enormous See also:

• BOA

boa-constrictor of great length and See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, or steals upon it in the thick grass . He kills his•: victim by See also:

• ROLLING

rolling himself round the See also:

• BODY

body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates it by one irresistible convolution round its See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat . He seldom or never attacks human beings unless in self-See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, and loss of life from this cause is scarcely ever reported . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—The principal and almost the only food-See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain of the plains portion of the province is rice . The See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of this See also:

• STAPLE

staple is carried on generally under the same conditions as in Bengal; but the times of See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing and See also:

• REAPING (from O.E. rypan, rypan, probably allied to " ripe," mature, i.e. " fit for reaping "; the cognate forms are found in other languages)

reaping and the names given to the' several crops vary much in different parts of the province . In 1901-1902 out of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there were 1,194,000 acres under rice . In addition jute is grown to a considerable extent in Goalpara and Sylhet; See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton is grown in large quantities along the slopes of the Assam range . See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

Rubber is grown in government plantations and is also brought in by the hill tribes; while See also:

• LAC

lac, See also:

• MUSTARD

mustard and potatoes are also produced . See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

Tea Plantations.—T he most important article of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce produced in Assam is tea . The rice See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop covers a very great proportion of the cultivated land, but it is used for See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption, and the Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption, large quantities being imported for the coolies . The tea plantations. are the one great source of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth to the province, and the necessities of tea cultivation are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief stimulants, to the development of Assam .

The plant was discovered in 1823 by Mr See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile exploration . The country, however, then formed part of. the Burmese dominions . But See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with this See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy shortly after-wards See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, and a,See also:

• BROTHER

brother of the first discoverer, happening to be appointed to the command of a division of 'gunboats employed in some part of the operations, followed up the pursuit of the subject, and obtained several hundred See also:

• PLANTS

plants and a considerable quantity of See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed . Some specimens were ultimately forwarded to the See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent of the botanic See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden at See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta . In.1832 See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain F . See also:

• JENKINS, ROBERT (fl. 1731-1745)
• JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE (1623-1685)

Jenkins was deputed by the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor-general of India, See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM (1774-1839)
• BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH

Bentinck, to See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report upon the resources of the country, and the tea plant was brought to his especial See also:

• NOTICE

notice by Mr Bruce; in 1834 a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in which it is stated that his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention had been called to it in 1827 before his departure from See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . In accordance with the views of that minute, a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries, and to promote the cultivation of the plant . Communications were opened with See also:

• CHINA

China with a view to obtain fresh plants. and seeds, and a deputation, composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies, was despatched to Assam . Some seeds were obtained from China; but they proved to be of small importance, as it was clearly ascertained by the members of the Assam deputation that both the black and the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green tea plants were indigenous here, and might be multi-plied to any extent ; another result of the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• MISSION

mission, that of procuring persons skilled in the cultivation and manufacture of black tea, was of more material benefit . Subsequently, under Lord See also:

• AUCKLAND
• AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849)
• AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814)

Auckland, a further supply of Chinese cultivators and manufacturers was obtained—men well acquainted with the processes necessary for the production of green tea, as the former set were with those requisite for. black . In 1838 the first twelve chests of tea from Assam were received in England . They had been injured in some degree on the passage, but on samples being submitted to brokers, and others of long experience and tried See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, the reports were highly favourable .

It was never, however, the intention of government to carry on the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, but to resign it to private See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly completed . Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture of tea in Assam began to be formed as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1839; and in 1849 the government disposed of their establishment„ and relinquished the manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise . In 1851 the crop of the principal See also:

• COMPANY

company was estimated to produce 280.000 lb . Since then the enterprise has rapidly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . Tea is now cultivated in all the plains district of• the. provinces . When the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry was first established, the land which was supposed to be best for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now it has been found in the Surma valley that with See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good drainage the heaviest crops of tea can be raised from low-lying land, even such as formerly supported rice cultivation . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of..the year 1905 there were 942 gardens in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing 464,912 coolies . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of gardens are owned by Euro- ns, 405,486 acres belonging to them as against 16,849 to See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians . We total out-turn for the province in1905was 193,556,047 lb . Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of tea cultivation, with the result that the industry began to suffer from the congestionthat follows over-production . Also to meet the requirements of the industry, an enormous number of coolies had to be brought into the province from other parts of India, and in See also:

• RECENT

recent years the supply of labour has begun to fall off, causing a rise in the cost of production . For these reasons there was a crisis in the tea industry of Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the reduction of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty on tea in 106 .

Tea-Garden Coolies.-The labour required on the tea gardens is almost entirely imported,, as the natives of the province are too prosperous to do such See also:

• WORK

work .. During the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade 1891-1901, 596,856 coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the province . The, importation of coolies is controlled by an elaborate system of legislation, which provides for the See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration of.,coptracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the journey,' and supervision over rates of pay, &c.,, on the gardens, The first labour See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was passed in 1863, and since then the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law on the subject has been changed by successive enactments . The measure now in force is called Act VI. of 19oi . Under this act the maximum See also:

• TERM

term of the labour See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum monthly wage is laid down, the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of which, however, is contingent on the completion of a daily task by the labourer . Labourers under contract deserting are liable to See also:

• FINE

fine and imprisonment, and, subject to certain restrictions, may be arrested without See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant by. their employers . In addition to the labourers engaged under this act, a large number are employed under contract enforceable by Act X1tI of 1859, which provides penalties for See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of the contract, but does not allow of the See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of deserters without warrant . Neither does this act regulate in any way the terms of the contract, nor contain any See also:

• SPECIAL

special provisions for the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the labourer, Many labourers on the conclusion of their first engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into renewed contracts under Act XI I I. of 1859 . In 1905 there were in all 664,296 labourers, and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62 % See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose the old act . See also:

• RAILWAYS

Railways.—The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of See also:

• CHITTAGONG

Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to See also:

• DIBRUGARH

Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra . The hill section of this line was found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive damage was done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now See also:

• COMPLETE

complete . This railway is financed by the government, though worked by a company, and therefore ranks as a state line .

At the end of 1904 its open mileage was 576 M . There are several short lines of light railway or See also:

• TRAMWAY

tramway in the province . The most important is the Dibru-See also:

• SADIYA

Sadiya railway, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a,branch to the coal-fields . Trade.—The See also:

• EXTERNAL

external trade of Assam is conducted partly by steamer, partly by native See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat, and to a small extent by See also:

• RAIL

rail . In the Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86 % of the exports, and, 94% of the imports . In the Surma valley native boats;carry..about 443% of both . In . 1904-1905 the total exports were valued. at 726 lakhs of rupees . The chief items were tea, rice in. the husk, oil-seeds, tea-seed, See also:

• TIMBER

timber, coal and jute . The imports were valued at 457 lakhs of rupees . The chief items were cotton piece-goods, rice nqt in the husk, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar, grain and See also:

• PULSE

pulse, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, cotton twist and See also: