modem colloquial See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek `See also:

• ATH, or AATII

Ath va] Athenae See also:

• ATHENS
• modem colloquial Greek `Ath va] Athenae ATHENS ['AN vat

ATHENS ['AN vat  , the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• GREECE

Greece, situated in 230 44' E. and 370 58' N., towards the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern end of the central and See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of See also:

• ATTICA

Attica . The various theories with regard to the origin of the name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is conceivable that, with the other homonymous See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek towns, such as Athenae Diades in See also:

• EUBOEA (pronounced Evvia in the modern language)

Euboea, 'AOi vat may be connected etymologically with avWes, a See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower (cf . Firenze, See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence); the See also:

• PATRON

patron goddess, See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena, was probably called after the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of her cult . I . See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES The See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic plain, To ire&iov, slopes gently towards the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Saronic Gulf on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west; on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east it is overlooked by See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• HYMETTUS (Ital. Monte Matto, hence the modern name Trello Vouni)

Hymettus (3369 ft.); on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-east by See also:

• PENTELICUS (Bpr.Anvvbs, or Ilevee LKOv opoc from the deme HEveiXn; mod. Mendeli)

Pentelicus or Brilessus (3635 ft.) from which, in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient and See also:

• MODERN

modern times, an immense quantity of the finest See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble has been quarried; on the north-west by Parnes (4636 ft.), a continuation of the Boeotian See also:

• CITHAERON

Cithaeron, and on the west by Aegaleus (1532 ft.), which descends abruptly to the See also:

• BAY

bay of See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis . In the centre of the plain extends from north-east to south-west, a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the south in the sharply pointed Lycabettus (1112 ft.), now called Hagios Georgios from the monastery which crowns its See also:

• SUMMIT

summit . Lycabettus, the most prominent feature in the Athenian landscape, directly overhung the ancient See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, but was not included in its walls; its See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar shape rendered it unsuitable for fortification . The Turcovuni See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge, probably the ancient Anchesmus, separates the valley of the Cephisus on the north-west from that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the ancient city on the south-west . The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus, enters the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an in-significant stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus, is totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient forests on both mountains, and the consequent denudation of the See also:

• SOIL

soil . Separated from Lycabettus by a depression to the south-west, through which flows a See also:

• BROOK

brook, now a covered drain (probably to be identified with the See also:

• ERIDANUS

Eridanus), stands the remarkable oblong rocky See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis (512 ft.), rising precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit was partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• AREA

area was subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of retaining walls . See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

Close to the Acropolis on the west is the See also:

• LOWER

lower rocky See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence of the See also:

• AREOPAGUS ("Apews Ilayos)

Areopagus, "Apews irayos (377 ft.), the seat of the famous See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council; the name (see also AREOPAGUS) has been connected with See also:

• ARES

Ares, whose See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple stood on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill, but is more probably derived from the `Apai or See also:

• EUMENIDES (from Gr. evµevtits, kindly; di, well, and jAvos, disposition)

Eumenides, whose See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary was formed by a cleft in its north-eastern declivity . Farther west of the Acropolis are three elevations; to the north-west the so-called " Hill of the See also:

• NYMPHS

Nymphs " (341 ft.), on which the modern See also:

• OBSERVATORY

Observatory stands; to the west the Pnyx, the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-place of the Athenian See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy (351 ft.), and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still crowned with the remains of the See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of Phil6pappus .

A cavity, a little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally supposed to be the ancient Barathron or place of See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution . To the south-east of the Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus (436 ft.) . The distance from the Acropolis to the nearest point of the sea coast at Phalerum is a little over 3 M . The natural situation of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was such as to favour the growth of a powerful community . For the first requisites of a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement—See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply and See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence—it See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

Influence, afforded every See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage . The Attic plain, notwith- ctthegeestanding the lightness of the soil, furnished an adequate graphical supply of cereals; See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive and fig groves and vineyards position. were cultivated from the earliest times in the valley of the Cephisus, and pasturage for See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and goats was abundant . The surrounding rampart of mountains was broken towards the 832 north-east by an open See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract stretching between, Hymettus and Peatelicus towards See also:

• MARATHON

Marathon, and was traversed by the passes of See also:

• DECELEA (Gr. DeeeXeta); an Attic deme, on the pass which led over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropus and Chalcis. From its position it has a commanding view over the Athenian plain. Its eponymous %; ro, Decelus, was said to have indicated to the Ty

Decelea, See also:

• PHYLE

Phyle and See also:

• DAPHNE

Daphne on the north and north-west, but the distance between these natural passages and the city was sufficient to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading See also:

• LAND

land force . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand Athens, like See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth, See also:

• MEGARA

Megara and See also:

• ARGOS

Argos, was sufficiently far from the sea to enjoy See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security against the sudden descent of a hostile See also:

• FLEET

fleet . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the relative proximity of three natural harbours, See also:

• PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Hetpaceur)

Peiraeus, Zea and Munychia, favoured the development of maritime See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and of the sea See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power which formed the basis of Athenian See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is temperate, but liable to sudden changes; the mean temperature is 63°•1 F., the maximum (in See also:

• JULY

July) 99 .oi, the minimum (in See also:

• JANUARY

January) 31°'55 . The summer See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is moderated by the sea-See also:

• BREEZE

breeze or by cool northerly winds from the mountains (especially in July and See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August) . The clear, bracing See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, according to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and aesthetic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people and endowed them with See also:

• MENTAL

mental and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy .

For the architectural embellishment of the city the finest See also:

• BUILDING

building material was procurable without difficulty and in abundance; Pentelicus forms a mass of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, transparent, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat similar in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, but generally of a bluer -See also:

• HUE

hue, was obtained from Hymettus . For See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary purposes See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone was furnished by Lycabettus and the adjoining hills; limestone from the promontory of Acte (the co-called " See also:

• POROS

poros " See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone), and See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate, were also largely employed . For the ceramic See also:

• ART

art admirable material was at hand in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district north-west of the Acropolis . For See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture and various architectural purposes white, See also:

• FINE

fine-grained marble was brought from See also:

• PAROS, or PARO

Paros and See also:

• NAXOS

Naxos . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to the situation of the city See also:

• LAY

lay in the in-sufficiency of its See also:

• WATER

water-supply, which was supplemented by an See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct constructed in the time of the Peisistratids and by later water-courses dating from the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . A See also:

• GREAT

great number of See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells were also sunk and See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-water was stored in cisterns . For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the natural features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of the architectural structures or remnants, a See also:

• PROCESS

process demanding high technical competence, acute See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical experience, as well as wide and accurate scholarship . The building material and the manner of its employment furnish See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence no less important than the character of the See also:

• MASONRY

masonry, the See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and See also:

• SOURCES

Sources the modes of ornamentation . The testimony afforded for by See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions is often of decisive importance, especially Athenian that of commemorative or votive tablets or of boundary- tope- stones found in situ; the value of this evidence is, on graphy. the other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former removal of building material already used and its in-See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation in later structures . Thus sepulchral inscriptions have been found on the Acropolis, though no burials took place there in ancient times . In the next place comes the evidence derived from the whole range of ancient literature and specially from descriptions of the city or its different localities . The earliest known description of Athens was that of Diodorus, d TEponyri i, who lived in the second See also:

• HALF

half of the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C .

Among his successors were Polemon of Ilium (beginning of 2nd century n.c.),whose great uooµei h arept,$ynans gavea minuteaccountof thevotiveofferingson theAcropolis and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and See also:

• HELIODORUS

Heliodorus (second half of the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of Athens . Of these and other See also:

• WORKS

works of the earliest topographers only some fragments remain . In the period between A.D . 143 and 159 See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments of the Roman period had already been completed . The first See also:

• THIRTY

thirty chapters of his invaluable Description of Greece(aepenynoes 4 i 'EXXtdos) are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs . Pausanias makes no claim to exhaustiveness; he selected what was best See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth noticing (ra &EcoXoywrara) . His See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up from notes taken in the main from See also:

• PERSONAL

personal observation, possesses an especial importance for topographical See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, owing to his method of describing each See also:

• OBJECT

object in the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in which he saw it during the course of his walks . His accuracy, which has been called in question by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by See also:

• RECENT

recent excavations at Athens and elsewhere . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of ancient topographers closes with Pausanias . The literature of succeeding centuries furnishes only isolated references; the more important are found in the scholia on See also:

• ARISTOPHANES
• ARISTOPHANES (c. 448–385 B.e.1)

Aristophanes, the lexicons of See also:

• HESYCHIUS

Hesychius, See also:

• PHOTIUS
• PHOTIUS (c. 82o-891)

Photius and others, and the Etymologicum Magnum . The notices of Athens during the earlier See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages are scanty in the extreme . In 1395 Niccolo da Martoni, a See also:

• PILGRIM

pilgrim from the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Land, visited Athens[TOPOGRAPHY and wrote a description of a portion of the city .

Of the See also:

• WORK

work of Cyriac of See also:

• ANCONA
• ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835– )

Ancona, written about 1450, only some fragments remain, which are well supplemented by the contemporaneous description of the capable observer known as the " Anonymus of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan." Two See also:

• TREATISES

treatises in Greek by unknown Writers belong to the same period . The Dutchman Joannes See also:

• MEURSIUS [JOHANNES VAN MEURS] (1579-1639)

Meursius (1579–1639) wrote three disquisitions on Athenian topography . The See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest by See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice in 1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including the descriptions of De la See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coronelh and others . The systematic study of Athenian topography was begun in the 17th century, by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French residents at Athens, the consuls See also:

• GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, COUNT (1776-1834)

Giraud and Chatai nier and the Capuchin monks . The visit of the French physician Jacques See also:

• SPON, JACQUES (1647-1685)

Spon and the Englishman, See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Wheler or See also:

• WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906)
• WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887)

Wheeler (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe of the See also:

• PARTHENON (HapOevwv)

Parthenon in 1687; Spon's Voyage d'Italie, de Damage, de Grece et du See also:

• LEVANT

Levant, which contained the first scientific description of the ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler's See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

Journey into Greece, in 1682 . A period of See also:

• BRITISH

British activity in research followed in the 18th century . The monumental work of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• STUART, ARABELLA (1575-1615)
• STUART, GILBERT (1755-x828)
• STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (1833-1864)
• STUART, JOHN
• STUART, MOSES (1780-1852)
• STUART, SIR JOHN, COUNT

Stuart and See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas Revett, who spent three years at Athens (1751-1754), marked an See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the progress of Athenian topography and is still indispensable to its study, owing to the demolition of ancient buildings which began about the middle of the 18th century . To this period also belong the labours of See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• POCOCKE, EDWARD (1604-1691)

Pococke and Richard See also:

• DALTON
• DALTON, JOHN (1766-1844)

Dalton, Richard See also:

• CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889)
• CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810)
• CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766)
• CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879)

Chandler, E . D . See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke and See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• DODWELL, EDWARD (1767-1832)
• DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711)

Dodwell . The great work of W . M .

See also:

• LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-186o)

Leake (Topography of Athens and the Demi, 2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific research, in which See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German archaeologists have played a distinguished See also:

• PART

part . Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected See also:

• LIGHT

light on the art, the monuments and the topography of the ancient city . Numerous and costly excavations have been carried out Recent by the Greek See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government and by native and See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign research. scientific See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, while accidental discoveries have been frequently made during the building of the modern See also:

• TOWN

town . The museums, enriched by a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant inflow of works of art and inscriptions, have been carefully and scientifically arranged, and afford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of the past See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation . Improved means of communication have enabled many acute observers to apply the test of See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny on the spot to theories and conclusions mainly based on See also:

• LITERARY

literary evidence; five foreign See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, lend valuable aid to students of all nationalities, and lectures are frequently delivered in the museums and on the more interesting and important sites . The native archaeologists of the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day hold a recognized position in the scientific See also:

• WORLD

world; the patriotic sentiment of former times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warped their judgment, has been merged in devotion to See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science for its own See also:

• SAKE

sake, and the supervision of excavations, as well as the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the art-collections, is now in highly competent hands . Athens has thus become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and a basis for research in every part of the Greek world . The See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of many students has naturally been concentrated on the ancient city, the birthplace of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European art and literature, and a great development of investigation and discussion in the See also:

• SPECIAL

special domain of Athenian archaeology has given See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to a voluminous literature . Many theories hitherto universally accepted have been called in question or proved to be unsound: the views of Leake, for instance, have been challenged on various points, though many of his conclusions have been justified and confirmed . The supreme importance of a study of Greek antiquities on the spot, See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long understood by scholars in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and in See also:

• AMERICA

America, has gradually come to be:recognized in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, where a close attention to ancient texts, not always adequately supplemented by a course of See also:

• LOCAL

local study and observation, formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative attitude in regard to the problems of Greek archaeology . Since the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the German See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to a large extent become a speciality of German scholars, among whom Wilhelm Dorpfeld occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great architectural attainments and unrivalled local knowledge . Many of his bold and novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while others have met with See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance, except among scholars of the more conservative type .

Prehistoric Athens.—Numerous traces of the " Mycenaean " epoch have recently been brought to light in Athens and its neighbourhood . Among the monuments of this age The discovered in the surrounding districts are the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock- citadelrw See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

ea . hewn tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a landslip in 1877, and the domed See also:

• SEPULCHRE, CANONS REGULAR OF THE HOLY
• SEPULCHRE, EASTER
• SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY

sepulchre at Menidi, near the ancient Acharnae, excavated by Lolling in 1879 . Other "Mycenaean " landmarks have been laid See also:

• BARE

bare at See also:

• ELEUSIS

Eleusis Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna . These structures, however, are of comparatively See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor importance in point of dimensions and decoration; they were apparently designed as places of sepulture for local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated in the Athenian See also:

• REALM

realm by the vuvoucwµos (synoecism) attributed to See also:

• THESEUS

Theseus . The situation of the Acropolis, dominating the surrounding plain and possessing easy communication with the Sea, favoured the formation of a relatively powerful See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state—inferior, however, to See also:

• TIRYNS

Tiryns and See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae; the myths of See also:

• CECROPS (Ke,cpo,ti)

Cecrops, See also:

• ERECHTHEUS

Erechtheus and Theseus See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to the might of the princes who ruled in the Athenian citadel, and here we may naturally expect to find traces of massive fortifications resembling in some degree those of the great Argolid cities . Such in fact have been brought to light by the modern excavations on the Acropolis (1885-1889) . Remains of primitive polygonal walls which undoubtedly surrounded the entire area have been found at various points a little within the See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of the existing See also:

• PARAPET (Ital. parapetto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative of Ital. porare, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus; the German word is Brustwehr)

parapet . The best-preserved portions are at the eastern extremity, at the northern side near the ancient " royal " exit, and at the south-western See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle . The course of the walls can be traced with a few interruptions along the southern side . On the northern side are the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of a primitive See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower and other remains, apparently of dwelling-houses, one of which may have been the avKbvos 86pos 'EpexO os mentioned by See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer (Od. vii . 81) .

Among the foundations were discovered fragments of " Mycenaean " pottery . The various approaches to the citadel on the northern side—the rock-cut See also:

• FLIGHT

flight of steps north-east of the See also:

• ERECHTHEUM

Erechtheum (q.v.), the stairs leading to the well See also:

• CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. rc1,Eirrerr, to steal, and Mop, water)

Clepsydra, and the intermediate passage supposed to have furnished See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the Persians—are all.to be attributed to the primitive epoch . Two pieces of polygonal See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall, one beneath the See also:

• BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. bastire, to build)

bastion of See also:

• NIKE

Nike Apteros, the other in a See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• LINE

line between the Roman gateway and the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door of the See also:

• PROPYLAEA (Ilp6sruXov, 1pol- mala)

Propylaea, are all that remain of the primitive defences of the main entrance . These See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early fortifications of the Acropolis, ascribed to the primitive non-hellenic Pelasgi, must be distinguished from The Pelas- the Pelasgicum or Pelargicum, which was in all prob-&,m ability an encircling wall, built See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the See also:

• BASE

base of the citadel and furnished with nine See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates from which it derived the name of Enneapylon . Such a wall would be required to protect the clusters of dwellings around the Acropolis as well as the springs issuing from the rock, while the gates opening in various directions would give access to the surrounding pastures and gardens . This view, which is that of E . See also:

• CURTIUS, ERNST (1814-1896)
• CURTIUS, MARCUS

Curtius, alone harmonizes with the statement of See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (vi . 137) that the wall was " around " (crept) the Acropolis, and that of See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides (ii . 17) that it was " beneath " (See also:

• URN (Lat. urna, either from root of urere, to burn, being made of burnt clay, or connected with urceus, Gr. I5pxa, jar)

Urn) the fortress . Thus it would appear that the citadel had an See also:

• OUTER

outer and an inner line of defence in prehistoric times . The space enclosed by the outer wall was See also:

• LEFT

left unoccupied after the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• WARS

wars in deference to an oracular response apparently dictated by military considerations, the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of an open See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone being desirable for the defence of the citadel . A portion of the outer wall has been recognized in a piece of primitive masonry discovered near the See also:

• ODEUM (Gr. Odeion)

Odeum of Herodes See also:

• ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109–32 B.c.)

Atticus; other traces will probably come to light when the northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis have been completely explored .

Leake, whom Frazer follows, assumed the Pelasgicum to be a fortified space at the western end of the Acropolis; this view necessitates the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the nine gates were built one within the other, but early antiquity furnishes no instance of such a construction; Dorpfeld believes it to have extended from the grotto of See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan to the sacred See also:

• PRECINCT (from Lat. praecingere, to encircle, enclose, surround, prae and cingere, to gird)

precinct of Asclepius . The well-known passage of See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian (Piscalor, 47) cannot be regarded as decisive for any of the theories advanced, as any portion of the old See also:

• ENCEINTE (Lat. in, within, cinctus, girdled; to be distinguished from the word meaning " pregnant," from in, not, and cinctus, i.e. with girdle loosened)

enceinte dismantled by the Persians may have retained the name in later times . The Pelasgic wall enclosed the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring Clepsydra,' beneath the north-western corner of the Acropolis, which furnished a water-supply to the defenders of the fortress . The spring, to which a See also:

• STAIRCASE

staircase leads down, was once more included in a bastion during the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence by the Greek See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• ODYSSEUS (in Latin Ulixes, incorrectly written Ulysses)

Odysseus . To the Pelasgic " era may perhaps be referred (with Curtius and Milchhofer) the immense See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• TERRACE (Fr. terrace, terrasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, Lat. terra, earth)

terrace on the north-eastern The Pnyx. slope of the Pnyx (395 ft. by 212), the upper portion of which is cut out of the rock, while the lower is enclosed by a semicircular wall of massive masonry; the theory of these scholars, however, that the whole precinct was a sanctuary II . 27of the Pelasgian See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus cannot be regarded as proved, See also:

• HOR, MOUNT (nirt)

hor is it easy to abandon the generally received view that this was the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of the popular assemblies of later times, notwithstanding the apparent unsuitability of the ground and the insufficiency of See also:

• ROOM

room for a large multitude . These difficulties are met by the assumption that the semicircular masonry formed the base of a retaining-wall which See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to a considerable height, supporting a See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre-like structure capable of seating many thousand persons . The masonry may be attributed to the 5th century; the chiselling of the immense blocks is not " Cyclopean . Projecting from the upper See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform at the centre of the chord of the semicircular area is a See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube of rock, it ft. square and 5 ft. high, approached on either side by. a flight of steps leading to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top; this See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block, which Curtius supposes to have been the primitive See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar of Zeus "T,laaros, may be safely identified with the orators' See also:

• BEMA (Gr./Bf771a)

bema, o )tiBos iv Tp IIvxvt (Aristoph . See also:

• PAX (Lat. for " peace ")

Pax, 68o) . See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch's statement that the Thirty Tyrants removed the bema so as to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face the land instead of the sea is probably due to a misunderstanding . Other cubes of rock, apparently altars, exist in the neighbourhood .

There can be little doubt that the Pnyx was the seat of an ancient cult; the meetings of the See also:

• ECCLESIA (Gr. EKKX ria, from Lc, out, and Ka)teiv, to call)

Ecclesia were of a religious character and were preceded by a See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice to Zeus 'Ayopaios; nor is it conceivable that, but for its sacred associations, a site would have been chosen so unsuitable for the purposes of a popular See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly as to need the addition of a costly artificial auditorium . The Pnyx, the Hill of the Nymphs and the Museum Hill are covered with vestiges of early settlements which extend to a considerable distance towards the south-east in the Rock. direction of Phalerum . They consist of See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers of dwellings various sizes, some of which were evidently human and habitations, together with cisterns, channels, seats, tombs. steps; terraces and quadrangular tombs, all cut in the rock . This neighbourhood was held by Curtius to have been the site of the primeval rock city, Kpavaa ir6\ c (Aristoph . Ach . 75), anterior to the occupation of the Acropolis and afterwards abandoned for the later settlement . It seems inconceivable, however, that any other site should have been preferred by the primitive settlers to the Acropolis, which offered the greatest advantages for defence; the Pnyx, owing to its proximity to the centres of civic See also:

• LIFE

life, can never have been deserted, and that portion which lay within the city walls must have been fully occupied when Athens was crowded during the Peloponnesian War . Some of the rock chambers originally intended for tombs were afterwards converted, perhaps under pressure of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity, into habitations, as in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the so-called " See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

Prison of See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates," which consists of three chambers See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon-See also:

• TALLY

tally excavated and a small round apartment of the " beehive" type . The remains on the Pnyx and its neighbourhood Cannot all be assigned to one epoch, the prehistoric age . The dwellings do not correspond in See also:

• SIZE

size or details with the undoubtedly pre-historic abodes on the Acropolis . In view of the ancient See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law which forbade See also:

• BURIAL

burial within the city, the tombs within the circuit of the city walls must either be earlier than the time of See also:

• THEMISTOCLES (c. 514-449 B.C.)

Themistocles or several centuries later; in the similar rock-tombs on the neighbouring slopes of the Acropolis and Areopagus both Mycenaean and Dipylon pottery havebeen found . But the numerous vertically excavated tombs outside the Walls are of See also:

• LATE

late date and belong for the most part to the Rbman period .

The Areopagus is now a bare rock possessing few architectural traces . The See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of its occupation by the See also:

• AMAZONS

Amazons (See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus, Eum . 68, seq.) may be taken as indicating its military importance for an attack on the Acropolis; the areopagas . Persians used it as a point d'appui for their See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault . The seat of the old oligarchical council and See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court for See also:

• HOMICIDE (Lat. homicidium)

homicide was probably on its eastern height . Here were the altar of Athena Areia and two stones, the Mhos "T/3pews, on which the accuser, and the MOOS 'Avat6etas, on which the accused, took their stand . Beneath, at the north-eastern corner, is the cleft which formed the sanctuary of the Eejvat, or See also:

• ERINYES (Lat. Furiae)

Erinyes . There is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for disturbing the associations connected' with this TI spot as the scene of