See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from See also:

• LAT

Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)  , the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title given by the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, on the 17th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 27 B.C., to See also:

• GAIUS

Gaius See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar Octavianus (63 B.C.–A.D . 14), or as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state (Mon . Anc . 34), and See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors . The title was adopted by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after they had ceased to be connected by See also:

• BLOOD

blood with the first See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus . Gaius Octavius was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in Rome on the 23rd of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 63 B.C., the See also:

• YEAR

year of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero's consulship and of See also:

• CATILINE [Lucius SERGIUS CATILINA] (C. I08-62 B.C.)

Catiline's See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy . He came of a See also:

• FAMILY

family of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• STANDING

standing, long settled at Velitrae (See also:

• VELLETRI (anc. Velitrae)

Velletri), but his See also:

• FATHER

father was the first of the family to obtain a See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule magistrscy at Rome and senatorial dignity . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother, however, was Atir, daughter of Julia, the wife of M . Atius See also:

• BALBUS

Balbus, and See also:

• SISTER

sister of Julius C'a esar, and it was this connexion with the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator which determined his career . In his fifth year (58 B.C.) his father died; about a year later his mother ' On the name see See also:

• NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST (1798-1895)
• NEUMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1793-1870)

Neumann. in Pauly-Wissowa's Reatencyclopadie f. d. alterth., s.v., 2374 . remarried, and the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Octavius passed under her care to that of his stepfather, L . Marcius See also:

• PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS

Philippus .

At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of twelve (51 B.C.) he delivered the customary funeral See also:

• PANEGYRIC

panegyric on his See also:

• GRAND

grand-mother Julia, his first public See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . On the 18th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 48 (or ? 47) B.c: he assumed the " toga virilis " and was elected into the pontifical See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college, an exceptional See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour which he no doubt owed to his great-See also:

• UNCLE

uncle, now dictator and See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of Rome . In 46 B.C. he shared in the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of Caesar's See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph, and in 45 he was made a patrician by the senate, and designated as one of Caesar's " masters of the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse " for the next year . In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign, sent his See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew to study quietly at the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of See also:

• APOLLONIA

Apollonia, in See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria . Here the See also:

• NEWS

news of Caesar's See also:

• MURDER

murder reached him and he crossed to See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . On landing he learnt that Caesar had made him his See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir and adopted him into the See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian gens, whereby he acquired the designation of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus . The See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance was a perilous one; his mother and others would have dissuaded him from accepting it, but he, confident in his abilities, declared at once that he would under-take its obligations, and See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge the sums bequeathed by the dictator to the Roman See also:

• PEOPLE

people . See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark Antony had possessed himself of Caesar's papers and effects, and made See also:

• LIGHT

light of his young nephew's pretensions . See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus and See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius paid him little regard, and dispersed to their respective provinces . Cicero, much charmed at the attitude of See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius, hoped to make use of him, and flattered him to the utmost, with the expectation, however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had served his purpose . Octavianus conducted himself with consummate adroitness, making use of all competitors for See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, but assisting none .

Considerable forces attached themselves to him . The senate, when it armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for assistance; and he took See also:

• PART

part in the campaign in which Antonius was defeated at Mutina (43 B.c.) . The soldiers of Octavianus demanded the consulship for him, and the senate, though now much alarmed, could not prevent his See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election . He now effected a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition with Antonius and See also:

• LEPIDUS

Lepidus, and on the 27th of Nov-ember 43 B.C. the three were formally appointed a triumvirate for the reconstitution of the See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth for five years . They divided the western provinces among them, the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east being held for the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic by Brutus and Cassius . They See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of proscribed citizens, and caused the assassination of three See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred senators and two thousand knights . They further confiscated the territories of many cities throughout Italy, and divided them among their soldiers . Cicero was murdered at the demand of Antonius . The remnant of the republican party took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas . Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 B.C. to reduce the last defenders of the republic . Brutus and Cassius were defeated, and See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell at the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik)

Philippi . See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War soon See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out between the victors, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief incident of which was the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture by See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine of Perusia, and the alleged See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice of three hundred of- its defenders by the young Caesar at the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar of his uncle .

But See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was again made between them (40 B.c.) . Antonius married See also:

• OCTAVIA

Octavia, his See also:

• RIVAL

rival's sister, and took for himself the eastern See also:

• HALF

half of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, leaving the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to Caesar . Lepidus was reduced to the single See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . Meanwhile Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting off the supplies of See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain from Rome . The triumvirs were obliged to concede to him the islands in the western Mediterranean . But Octavianus could not allow the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital to be kept in alarm for its daily sustenance . He picked a See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel with Sextus, and when his colleagues failed to support him, undertook to attack him alone . Antonius, indeed, came at last to his aid, in return for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in the East . But Octavianus was well served by the See also:

• COMMANDER

commander of his See also:

• FLEET

fleet, M . Vipsanius See also:

• AGRIPPA
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, I
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, II
• AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS

Agrippa . Sextus was completely routed, and driven into See also:

• ASIA

Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 B.c.) . Lepidus was an See also:

• OBJECT

object of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus and Antonius remained to fight for supreme power .

The five years (36—31 B.C.) which preceded the decisive en-See also:

• COUNTER

counter between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitlesscampaigns, and in a dalliance with See also:

• CLEOPATRA

Cleopatra which shocked Roman sentiment . By Octavian they were employed in strengthening his hold on the West, and his claim to be regarded as the one possible saviour of Rome and Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . His See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage with Livia (38 B.c.) placed by his See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side a sagacious counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as great as even those of his trusted friend See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Agrippa . With their help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still inclined to distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 B.C . See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

Brigandage was suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian frontiers secured against the raids of Alpine tribes on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-west and of Illyrians on the east, while Rome was purified and beautified, largely with the help of Agrippa (See also:

• AEDILE (Lat. aedilis)

aedile in 33 B.c.) . Meanwhile, indignation at Antony's un-Roman excesses, and alarm at Cleopatra's rumoured schemes of See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding a See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco-See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental empire, were rapidly increasing . In 32 B.C . Antony's repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra's dangerous ascendancy, brought matters to a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax, and war was declared, not indeed against Antony, but against Cleopatra . The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 B.C. at See also:

• ACTIUM (mod. Punta)

Actium on the Epirot See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, and resulted in the almost See also:

• TOTAL

total. destruction of Antony's fleet and the surrender of his See also:

• LAND

land forces . Not quite a year later (Aug.' 1, 30 B.c.) followed the capture of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria and the deaths by their own hands of Antony and Cleopatra . On the 11th of January 29 B.C. the restoration of peace was marked by the closing of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• JANUS

Janus for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for 200 years . In the summer Octavian returned to Italy, and in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August celebrated a three days' triumph .

He was welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a See also:

• CIVIL

civil war, but as the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who had vindicated the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty of Rome against its assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-citizens, above all as the restorer of peace . He was now, to quote his own words, " master of all things," and the Roman See also:

• WORLD

world looked to him for some permanent See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the distracted empire . His first task was the re-See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a See also:

• REGULAR

regular and constitutional See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, such as had not existed since Julius Caesar crossed the See also:

• RUBICON

Rubicon twenty years before . To this task he devoted the next eighteen months (Aug . 29-See also:

• JAN

Jan . 27 B.C.) . In the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on RoME: See also:

• HISTORY

History (q.v.), his achievements are described in detail, and only a brief See also:

• SUMMARY

summary need be given here . The " principate," to give the new See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of government its most appropriate name, was a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise thoroughly characteristic of the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of tenacity of purpose with cautious respect for forms and conventions which distinguished its author . The republic was restored; senate, magistrates and See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly resumed their See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient functions; and the public See also:

• LIFE

life of Rome began to run once more in the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar grooves . The triumvirate with its irregularities and excesses was at an end . The controlling authority, which, Octavian himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed with . But henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional forms and limitations, and with the See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the senate and people .

Octavian was legally invested for a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of ten years with the government of the important frontier provinces, with the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole command of the military and See also:

• NAVAL

naval forces of the state, and the exclusive See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of its See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign relations . At See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home it was understood that he would year by year be elected See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul, and enjoy the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers and pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence attached to the chief magistracy of the Roman state . Thus the republic was restored under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency and patronage of its "first See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen" (princeps civitatis) . In See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his other services further honours were conferred upon Octavian . On the 13th of January 27 B.C., the birthday of the restored republic, he was awarded the civic See also:

• CROWN

crown to be placed over the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door of his See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, in token that he had saved his fellow-citizens and restored the Republic . Four days later (Jan . 17) the senate conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus . But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome that needed repair . Twenty years of civil war and confusion had disorganized the empire, and the strong See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of Augustus, as he must now be called, could alone restore confidence and See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . Towards the end of 27 B.C. he See also:

• LEFT

left Rome for See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, and frorr that date until October 19 B.C. he was mainly occupied with the reorganization of the provinces and of the provincial See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, first of all in the West and then in the East . It was during his stay in Asia (20 B.C.) that the Parthian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and See also:

• STANDARDS

standards taken at Carrhae (53 B.C.), a welcome See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to the respect inspired by Augustus, and a happy augury for the future . In October 19 B.C. he returned to Rome, and the senate ordered that the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of his return (Oct .

12) should thenceforward be observed as a public See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday . The period of ten years for which his imperium had been granted him was nearly ended, and though much remained to be done, very much had been accomplished . The pacification of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain by the subjugation of the Astures and See also:

• CANTABRI

Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories added to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul—the " New Gaul," or the " long-haired Gaul " (Gallia Comata) as it was called by way of distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis (see GAUL)—and the re-establishment of Roman authority over the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings and princes of the Near East, were achievements 'which fully justified the acclamations of senate and people . In 18 B.C . Augustus's imperium was renewed for five years, and his tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, was associated with him as a colleague . From October of 19 B.C. till the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of 16 B.C . Augustus's See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was given to Rome and to domestic reform, and to this period belong such See also:

• MEASURES

measures as the Julian law " as to the marriage of the orders." In See also:

• JUNE

June of 17 B.C. the opening of the new and better age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the celebration in Rome of the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

Secular See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games . The chief actors in the ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa, —while, as the extant See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record tells us, the processional hymn, chanted by youths and maidens first before the new temple of See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo on the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine and then before the temple of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter on the Capitol, was composed by See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace . The hymn, the well-known Carmen Saeculare, gives fervent expression to the prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude . In the next year (16 B.C.), however, Augustus was suddenly called away from Rome to See also:

• DEAL

deal with a problem which engrossed much of his attention for the next twenty-five years . The defeat of Marcus See also:

• LOLLIUS, MARCUS

Lollius, the See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate commanding on the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, by a See also:

• HORDE

horde of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German invaders, seems to have determined Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers of the empire towards the north, and the effective See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Gaul and Italy . The See also:

• WORK

work was entrusted to Augustus's step-sons Tiberius and See also:

• DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
• DRUSUS, NERO1 CLAUDIUS (38–9 B.C.)

Drusus .

The first step was the See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of See also:

• NORICUM (Noricus ager)

Noricum and See also:

• RAETIA (so always in inscriptions; in classical MSS. usually RHAETIA)

Raetia (16-15 B.C.), which brought under Roman control the mountainous See also:

• DISTRICT

district through which the See also:

• DIRECT

direct routes See also:

• LAY

lay from North Italy to the upper See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Rhine and the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube . East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order for the time the restless tribes of See also:

• PANNONIA

Pannonia, and probably established a military See also:

• POST

post at See also:

• CARNUNTUM (Kapvous in Ptolemy)

Carnuntum on the Danube . To Drusus fell the more ambitious task of advancing the Roman frontier See also:

• LINE

line from the Rhine to the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe, a work which occupied him until his See also:

• DEATH

death in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany in 9 B.C . In 13 B.C . Augustus had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion of his second period of See also:

• RULE

rule, were commemorated by the erection of one of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the Ara Pacis Augustae (see ROMAN See also:

• ART

ART, Pl . II, III) . His imperium was renewed, again for five years, and in 12 B.C., on the death of his former fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected See also:

• PONTIFEX

Pontifex See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus . But this third period of his imperium brought with it losses which Augustus must have keenly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt . Only a few months after his reappointment as Augustus's colleague, Marcus Agrippa, his trusted friend since boyhood, died . As was fully his due, his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and he was buried in the See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

mausoleum near the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber built by Augustus for himself and his family . Three years later his brilliant step-son Drusus died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in which he had reached the Elbe . Finally in 8 B.C. he lost the comrade who next to Agrippa had been the most intimate913 friend and counsellor of his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early manhood, Gaius Cilnius See also:

• MAECENAS, GAIUS (CILNIUS)

Maecenas, the See also:

• PATRON

patron of See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil and Horace .

For the moment Augustus turned, almost of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity, to his surviving step-son . Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa had been in the tribunician power, was married against his will to Julia, and sent to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Drusus's work in Germany (7-6 B.C.) . But Tiberius was only his step-son, and, with all his great qualities, was never a very lovable man . On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia, Gaius and See also:

• LUCIUS

Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him . Both had been adopted by Augustus (17 B.C.) . In 6 B.C . Tiberius, who had just received the tribunician power, was transferred from Germany to the East, where the situation in See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia demanded attention . His sudden withdrawal to See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes has been variously explained, but, in part at least, it was probably due to the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain indications which Augustus now gave of his wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs . The See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 B.C.), was formally introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus himself, who for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th) which he had dropped since 23 B.C., and was authorized to take part in the deliberations of the senate . Three years later (2 B.C.) Augustus, now consul for the 13th and last time, paid a similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius . In r B.C . Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (A.D .

2) Lucius was sent to Spain, apparently to take command of the legions there . But the fates were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died at See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles on his way out, and in the next year (A.D . 3) Gaius, wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia, started reluctantly for home, only to See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die in See also:

• LYCIA

Lycia . Tiberius alone was left, and Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally declared him to be his colleague and destined successor (A.D . 4) and adopted him as his son . The See also:

• INTEREST

interest of the last ten years of Augustus's life centres in the events occurring on the northern frontier . The difficult task of bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe under Roman rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 B.C., had on his death been continued by Tiberius (9-6 B.C.) . During Tiberius's retirement in Rhodes no decisive progress was made, but in A.D . 4 operations on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale were resumed . From Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we learn that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over the tribes between the Rhine and the See also:

• WESER (O. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis)

Weser, and that the Roman forces, instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on the Rhine, went into See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter-quarters near the source of the See also:

• LIPPE

Lippe . In the next year (A.D . 5) the Elbe was reached by the troops, while the fleet, after a hazardous voyage, arrived at the mouth of the same See also:

• RIVER

river and sailed some way up it .

Both feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in the Ancyran See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument . To complete the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Germany and to connect the frontier with the line of the Danube, it seemed that only one thing remained to be done, to break the power of the See also:

• MARCOMANNI (i.e. men of the mark, or border)

Marcomanni and their king Maroboduus . In the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of A.D . 6 preparations were made for this final achievement; the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was to be invaded simultaneously by two columns . One, starting apparently from the headquarters of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of Upper Germany at See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz, was to advance by way of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• FOREST

Forest and attack Maroboduus on the west; the other, led by Tiberius himself, was to start from the new military See also:

• BASE

base at Carnuntum on the Danube and operate from the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-east . But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in the See also:

• REAR

rear of Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia burst into a See also:

• BLAZE (A.-S. blaese, a torch)

blaze of insurrection . The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius to have been more serious than any which had confronted Rome since the Hannibalic war, for it was not merely the loss of a province but the invasion of Italy that was threatened, and Augustus openly declared in the senate that the insurgents might be before Rome in ten days . He himself moved to See also:

• ARIMINUM (mod. Rimini)

Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously carried on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from See also:

• MOESIA (Gr. Muck and Mveia i)

Moesia and even from Asia . In the end, and not including the Thracian See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry of King Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions with an equal number of auxiliaries was employed . Even so the task of putting down the insurrection was difficult enough, and it was not until See also:

• LATE

late in the summer of A.D . 9, after three years of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to assist Tiberius, ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia . Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus and his legions, in the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of what was to have been the new province of Germany beyond the Rhine .

The disaster was avowedly due entirely to Varus's incapacity and vanity, and might no doubt have been repaired by leaders of the calibre of Tiberius and Germanicus . Augustus, however, was now seventy-two, the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve, and now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to pronounce clearly against a further See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution of his long-cherished See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe . All that was immediately necessary was done . Recruiting was pressed forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then Germanicus were despatched to the Rhine . But the German leaders were too prudent to See also:

• RISK

risk defeat, and the Roman generals devoted their attention mainly to strengthening the line of the Rhine . The defeat of Varus, and the tacit See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the plans of expansion begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last events of importance in the long principate of Augustus . The last five years of his life (A.D . 10—14) were untroubled by war or disaster . Augustus was ageing fast, and was more and more disinclined to appear personally in the senate or in public . Yet in A.D . 13 he consented, reluctantly we are told, to yet one more renewal of his imperium for ten years, stipulating, however, that his step-son Tiberius, himself now over fifty, should be associated with himself on equal terms in the administration of the empire . Early in the same year (January 16, A.D .

13) the last triumph of his principate was celebrated . Tiberius was now in Rome, the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus, who went out to it immediately after his consulship (A.D . 12), and the time had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian triumph, which the defeat of Varus had postponed . Augustus witnessed the triumphal procession, and Tiberius, as it turned from the See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum to ascend the Capitol, halted, descended from his triumphal See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car, and did reverence to his adopted father . One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome . During A.D . 13 he and Tiberius conducted a See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of Roman citizens, the third taken by his orders; the first having been in 28 B.C. at the very outset of his rule . The business of the census lasted over into the next year, but on the rlth of May, A.D . 14, before a great See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd in the Campus See also:

• MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794—1868)

Martius, Augustus took part in the See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out of sight .the old age and inaugurating the new . The ceremony had been full of significance in 28 B.C., and now more than See also:

• FORTY

forty years later it was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself . When the tablets containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the state during the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of reciting them to Tiberius, saying that he would not take vows which he was never destined to perform . It was apparently at the end of June or early in See also:

• JULY

July that Augustus left Rome on his last See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey .

Travelling by road to See also:

• ASTURA

Astura (Torre Astura) at the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern point of the little See also:

• BAY

bay of See also:

• ANTIUM (mod. Anzio)

Antium, he sailed thence to See also:

• CAPRI (anc. Capreae)

Capri and to See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples . On his way at See also:

• PUTEOLI (mod. Pozzuoli, q.v.)

Puteoli, the passengers and See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew of a See also:

• SHIP

ship just come from Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage, declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life, safe passage on the seas, freedom and See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune . At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out a gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied Tiberius as far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and Illyricum . On his return he was forced by illness to stop at See also:

• NOLA

Nola, his father's old home . Tiberius was hastily recalled and had a last confidential talk on affairs of state . Thenceforward, says Suetonius, he gave no more thought to such great affairs . He bade farewell to his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, inquired after the See also:

• HEALTH

health of Drusus's daughter who was See also:

• ILL

ill, and then quietly expired in the arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most intimate and trusted See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide and counsellor, and to whom his last words were an exhortation to " live mindful of our wedded life." He died on the loth of August, A.D . 14, in the same See also:

• ROOM

room in which his father had died before him, and on the anniversary of his entrance upon his first consulship fifty-seven years before (43 B.c.) . The See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse was carried to Rome in slow procession along the See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian Way . On the day of the funeral it was borne to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and there burnt . The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed in the mausoleum by the Tiber which her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband had built for himself and his family . The last See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was the formal See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of the senate by which Augustus, like his father Julius before him, was added to the number of the gods recognized by the Roman state .

If we except writers like See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

Voltaire who could see in Augustus only the man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty, the See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict of posterity on Augustus has varied just in proportion as his critics have fixed their attention, mainly, on the means by which he See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to power, or the use which he made of the power when acquired . The lines of See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument followed respectively by friendly and hostile contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac . See also:

• ANN

Ann. i . 9, xo) have been followed by later writers with little See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . But of late years, our increasing mistrust of the current See also:

• GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing in relation to)

gossip about him, and our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what he actually accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the judgments passed upon him . We allow the faults and crimes of his early manhood, his cruelties and deceptions, his readiness to sacrifice everything that came between him and the end he had in view . On the other hand, a careful study of what he achieved between the years 38 B.C., when he married Livia, and his death in A.D . 14, is now held to give him a claim to See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, not merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished political actor, but as one of the world's great men, a statesman who conceived and carried through a scheme of political reconstruction which kept the empire together, secured peace and tranquillity, and preserved civilization for more than two centuries .