BACON  , See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

FRANCIS The See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of the See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• WORKS

works is completed by the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on theological or ecclesiastical questions . Some of the latter, included among the occasional works, are sagacious and prudent and deserve careful study . Of the former, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal specimens are the Meditationes Sacrae and the See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

Confession of Faith . The Paradoxes (Characters of a believing See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian in paradoxes, and seeming contradictions), which was often and justly suspected, has been conclusively proved by See also:

• GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899)

Grosart to be the See also:

• WORK

work of another author . Philosophical Works.—The See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of Bacon's writings consists of treatises or fragments, which either formed integral parts of his See also:

• GRAND

grand comprehensive See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, or were closely connected with it . More exactly they may be classified under three heads: (A) Writings originally. intended to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form parts of the Instauratio, but which were afterwards superseded or thrown aside; (B) Works connected with the Instauratio, but not directly included in its See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan; (C) Writings which actually formed See also:

• PART

part of the Instauratio Magna .. (A) This class contains some important tracts, which certainly contain little, if anything, that is not afterwards taken up and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded in the more elaborate works, but are not undeserving of See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, from the difference in the point of view and method of treatment . The most valuable of them are: (r) The See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

Advancement of Learning, of which no detailed See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account need be given, as it is completely worked up into the De Augmentis, and takes. its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as the first part of the Instauratio . (2) See also:

• VALERIUS, PUBLIUS

Valerius See also:

• TERMINUS

Terminus; a very remarkable piece, composed probably about 16o3, though perhaps retouched at a later See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . It contains a brief and somewhat obscure outline of the first two parts in the Instauratio, and is of importance as affording us some insight into the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual development of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system in Bacon's own mind . (3) Temporis Partus Masculus, another curious fragment, remarkable not only from its contents, but from its See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, which is arrogant and offensive, in this respect unlike any other See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of Bacon's . The See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective masculus points to the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of bringing forth See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit possessed by the new See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, and perhaps indicates that all previous births of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time were to be looked upon as feminine or imperfect.; it is used in a somewhat similar sense in Letters and See also:

• LIFE

Life, vi .

183, In verbis masculis, no flourishing or painted words, but such words as are See also:

• FIT

fit to go before deeds." (4) Redargutio Philosophiarum, a highly finished piece in the form of an oration, composed probably about 16o8 or i6og, and containing in See also:

• PRETTY

pretty full detail much of what afterwards appears in connexion with the Idola Theatri in See also:

• BOOK

book i. of the Novum Organum . (5) Cogitata et 'Visa, perhaps the most important of the minor philosophical writings, dating from 1607 (though possibly the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract in its See also:

• PRESENT

present form may have been to some extent altered), and containing in weighty and sonorous Latin the substance of the first book of the Organum . (6) The Descriptio Globi Intellectualis, which is to. some extent intermediate between the Advancement and the De Augmentis, goes over in detail the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of the sciences, and enters particularly on some points of minor See also:

• INTEREST

interest . (;) The brief tract De Inter pre/ atione Naturae Sententiae Duodecim is evidently a first See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of part of the Novum Organum, and in phraseology is almost identical with it . (8) A few smaller pieces, such as the Inquisitio de Motu. the Calor et Frigus, the Historia Soni et Auditus and the Phaenomena Universi, are See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early specimens of his Natural See also:

• HISTORY

History, and exhibit the first tentative applications of the new method . (B) The second See also:

• GROUP

group consists of treatises on subjects connected with the Instauratio, but not forming part of it . The most interesting, and in many respects the most remarkable, is the philosophic See also:

• ROMANCE

romance, the New See also:

• ATLANTIS, ATALANTIS, or ATLANTICA

Atlantis, a description of an ideal See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in which the principles of the new philosophy are carried out by See also:

• POLITICAL

political machinery and under state guidance, and where many of the results contemplated by Bacon are in See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination attained . The work was to have been completed by the addition of a second part, treating of the See also:

• LAWS

laws of a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth, which was never written . Another important tract is the De Principiis clique Originibus secundum Fabulas Cupidinis et Caeli, where, under the disguise of two old mythological stories,. he (in the manner of the Sapientia Veterum) finds the deepest truths Bacon's Works and Philosophy . A See also:

• COMPLETE

complete survey of Bacon's works and an estimate of his place in literature and philosophy are matters fora See also:

• VOLUME

volume . It is here proposed merely to classify the works, to indicate their general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and to enter somewhat more in detail upon what he himself regarded as his great achievement,—the re-organization of the sciences and the exposition of a new method by which the human mind might proceed with See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security and certainty towards the true end of all human thought and See also:

• ACTION

action . Putting aside the letters and occasional writings, we may conveniently distribute the other works into three classes, Prof essional, Literary, Philosophical .

The Professional works include the See also:

• READING

Reading on the See also:

• STATUTE

Statute of Uses, the See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

Maxims of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law and the See also:

• TREATISE

treatise (possibly See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious) on the Use of the Law . " I am in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope," said Bacon himself, "that when See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with " colk," core)
• COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634)
• COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644)
• COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814)

Coke's reports and my rules and decisions shall come to posterity, there will be (whatsoever is now thought) question who was the greater lawyer." If Coke's reports show completer mastery of technical details, greater knowledge of precedent, and more of the dogged grasp of the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter than do Bacon's legal writings, there can be no dispute that the latter exhibit an infinitely more comprehensive intelligence of the abstract principles of See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence, with a richness and ethical fulness that more than compensate for their lack of dry legal detail . Bacon seems indeed to have been a lawyer of the first See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, with a keen scientific insight into the See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings of isolated facts and a power of generalization which admirably fitted him for the self-imposed task, unfortunately never completed, of digesting or codifying the chaotic mass of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English law . Among the literary works are included all that he himself designated moral and See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical pieces, and to these may be added some theological and minor writings, such as the Apophthegms . Of the moral works the most valuable are the Essays, which have been so widely read and universally admired . The See also:

• MATTER

matter is of the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar, See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, that " comes See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home to men's bosoms." The thoughts are weighty, and even when not See also:

• ORIGINAL

original have acquired a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar and unique See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone or See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast by passing through the crucible of Bacon's mind . A See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence from the Essays can rarely be mistaken for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of any other writer . The See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, pithy sayings have become popular mottoes and See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household words . The style is See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint, original, abounding in allusions and witticisms, and See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich, even to gorgeousness, with piled-up analogies and metaphors.' The first edition contained only ten essays, but the number was increased in r6r2 to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-eight, and in 1625 to fifty-eight . The short tract, See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

Colours of Good and Evil, which' with the Meditationes Sacrae originally accompanied the Essays, was afterwards incorporated with the De Augmentis . Along with these works may be classed the curiously learned piece, De Sapientia Veterum, in which he works out a favourite See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, that the mythological fables of the Greeks were allegorical and concealed the deepest truths of their philosophy . As a scientific explanation of the myths the theory is of no value, but it affords See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for the exercise of Bacon's unrivalled power of detecting analogies in things apparently most dissimilar .

The Apophthegms, though hardly deserving See also:

• MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859)

Macaulay's praise of being the best collection of jests in the See also:

• WORLD

world, contain a number of those significant anecdotes which Bacon used with such effect in his other writings . Of the historical works, besides a few fragments of the projected history of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain there remains the History of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VII., a valuable work, giving a clear and animated narrative of the reign, and characterizing Henry with great skill . The style is in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with the matter, vigorous and flowing, but naturally with less of the quaintness and richness suitable to more thoughtful and original writings . ' The peculiarities of Bacon's style were noticed very early by his contemporaries . (See Letters and Life, i . 268.) See also:

• RALEIGH
• RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (c. 1552-1618)

Raleigh and See also:

• JONSON

Jonson have both recorded their opinions of it, but no one has characterized it more happily than his friend, Sir Tobie See also:

• MATTHEWS, STANLEY (1824-1889)

Matthews, " A See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man so rare in knowledge, of so many several kinds, endued with the facility and felicity of expressing it all in so elegant, significant, so abundant, and yet' so choice and ravishing a way of words, of metaphors, of allusions, as perhaps the world hath not seen since it was a world."—'' Address to the Reader" prefixed to Collection of English Letters (166o) . concealed . The tract is unusually interesting, for in it he discusses at some length the limits of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, the origin of things and the nature of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive matter, giving at the same time full notices of See also:

• DEMOCRITUS

Democritus among the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient philosophers and of See also:

• TELESIO, BERNARDINO (1509-1588)

Telesio among the See also:

• MODERN

modern . Deserving of attention are also the Cogitationes de Natura Rerum, probably written early, perhaps in 1645; and the treatise on the theory of the tides, De Fluxu et Refluxu Marls, written probably about 1616 . (C) The philosophical works which form part of the Instauratio must of course be classed according to the positions which they respectively hold in that scheme of the sciences . The great work, the reorganization of the sciences, and the restoration of man to that command over nature which he had lost by the fall, consisted in its final form of six divisions . I .

Partitiones Scientiarum, a survey of the sciences, either such as then existed or such as required to be constructed afresh—in fact, an See also:

• INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. inventarium, a list or repertory, from invenire to find)

inventory of all the possessions of the human mind . The famous classification' on which this survey proceeds is based upon an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the faculties and See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of human knowledge . This See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division is represented by the De Augmentis Scientiarum . II . Interpretatio Naturae.—After the survey of all that has yet been done in the way of See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery or invention, comes the new method, by which the mind of man is to be trained and directed in its progress towards the renovation of science . This division is represented, though only imperfectly, by the Novum Organism, particularly book ii . IV . Scala Intellectus.—It might have been supposed that the new philosophy could now be inaugurated . Materials had been supplied, along with a new method by which they were to be treated, and naturally the next step would be the finished result . But for practical purposes Bacon interposed two divisions between the preliminaries and the philosophy itself . The first was intended to consist of types or examples of investigations conducted by the new method, serviceable for keeping the whole See also:

• PROCESS

process vividly before the mind, or, as the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title indicates, such that the mind could run rapidly up and down the several steps or grades in the process . Of this division there seems to be only one small fragment, the Filum Labyrinthi, consisting of but two or three pages .

V . Prodromi, forerunners of the new philosophy . This part, strictly speaking, is quite extraneous to the general See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design . According to the Distributio Operis,2 it was to contain certain speculations of Bacon's own, not formed by the new method, but by the unassisted use of his understanding . These, therefore, form temporary or uncertain anticipations of the new philosophy . There is extant a short See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface to this division of the work, and according to See also:

• SPEDDING, JAMES (18o8–1881)

Spedding, some of the See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous treatises, such as De Principiis, De Fluxu et Refluxu, Cogitationes de Natura Rerum, may probably have been intended to be included under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . This supposition receives some support from the manner in which the fifth part is spoken of in the Novum Organum, i . 116 . VI . The new philosophy, which is the work of future ages, and the result of the new method . Bacon's grand See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive in his See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to found the sciences anew was the intense conviction that the knowledge man ' The division of the sciences adopted in the great See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Encyclapedie was founded upon this classification of Bacon's . See See also:

• DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784)

Diderot's See also:

• PROSPECTUS (Lat. for view, look-out, prospect, from prospicere, to look forward)

Prospectus ((Fumes, iii.) and d'See also:

• ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND

Alembert's Discours (Uiuvres,i.) The scheme should be compared with later attempts of the same nature by See also:

• AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775–1836)
• AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864)

Ampere, Cournoi, See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte and See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer .

2 See also " Letter to Fulgentio," Letters and Life, vii . 533.possessed was of little service to him . " The knowledge whereof the world is now possessed, especially that of nature, extendeth not to magnitude and certainty of'works." 3 Man's See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty over nature, which is founded on knowledge alone, had been lost, and instead of the See also:

• FREE

free relation between things and the human mind, there was nothing but vain notions and See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind experiments . To restore the original See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce between man and nature, and to recover the imperium hominis, is the grand See also:

• OBJECT

object of all science . The want of success which had hitherto attended efforts in the same direction had been due to many causes, but chiefly to the want of appreciation of the nature of philosophy and its real aim . Philosophy is not the science of things divine and human; it is not the See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search after truth . " I find that even those that have sought knowledge for itself, and not for benefit or ostentation, or any practical enablement in the course of their life, have nevertheless propounded to themselves a wrong See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, namely, See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction (which men See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call Truth) and not operation." " Is there any such happiness as for a man's mind to be raised above the confusion of things, where he may have the prospect of the order of nature and See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error of man ? But is this a view of delight only and not of discovery ? of contentment and not of benefit ? Shall he not as well discern the riches of nature's warehouse as the beauty of her See also:

• SHOP

shop ? Is truth ever barren ? Shall he not be able thereby to produce worthy effects, and to endow the life of man with See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite commodities ? " s Philosophy is altogether practical; it is of little matter to the fortunes of humanity what abstract notions one may entertain concerning the nature and the principles of things.6 This truth, however, has never yet been recognized;7 it has not yet been seen that the true aim of all science is " to endow the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition and life of man with new See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers or works," 8 or " to extend more widely the limits of the power and greatness of man." 9 Nevertheless, it is not to be imagined that by this being proposed as the great object of search there is thereby excluded all that has hitherto been looked upon as the higher aims of human life, such as the contemplation of truth .

Not so, but by following the new aim we shall also arrive at a true knowledge of the universe in which we are, for without knowledge there is no power; truth and utility are in ultimate aspect the same; " works themselves are of greater value as pledges of truth than as contributing to the comforts of life."Such was the conception of philosophy with which Bacon started, and in which he See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt himself to be thoroughly original . As his object was new and hitherto unproposed, so the method he intended to employ was different from all modes of investigation hitherto attempted . " It would be," as he says, " an unsound See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy and self-contradictory, to expect that things which have never yet been done can be done except by means which have never yet been tried . 11 There were many obstacles in his way, and he seems always to have felt that the first part of the new scheme must be a pars destruens, a destructive See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of all other methods . Opposition was to be, expected, not only from previous philosophies, but especially from the human mind itself . In the first place, natural antagonism might be looked for from the two opposed sects, the one of whom, in despair of knowledge, maintained that all science was impossible; while the other, resting on authority and on the learning that had been handed down from the Greeks, declared that science was already completely known, and consequently devoted their energies to methodizing and elaborating it . Secondly, within the domain of science itself, properly so called, there were two " kind of rovers " who must be dismissed . The first were the speculative or logical philosophers, who construe the universe ex analogia hominis, and not ex analogia mundi, who See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion nature according to preconceived ideas, and who employ in their investigations See also:

• SYLLOGISM (Gr. ovAAoytvµos, from en', and Xb-yor, an argument resulting from combination, i.e. of premises)

syllogism and abstract reasoning . The second class, who were equally offensive, consisted of those who practised blind experience, which is See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere 9 Fil . Lab . ; See also:

• COG

Cog. et Visa. i . ; of .

Pref. to Ins . Meg . ' Val . Ter . 232 ; cf . N . 0. i . 124 . ' Letters, i . 123 . 6 N . 0. i .

116 . 9 Fit . Lab . 5; cf . N . 0. i . 81; Val . Ter . (Works, iii . 235) ; Advancement, bk. i . (Works, iii . 294) .

8 Fit . Lab . 5; cf . N . 0. i . 81; Val . Ter . (Works, iii . 222 233) ; New Atlantis (Works, in . 156) . 9N . 0. i .

116 . 19 Ibid. i . 124 . " Ibid.i . 6 . groping in the dark (vaga experientia mera palpatio est), who occasionally See also:

• HIT

hit upon good works or inventions, which, like See also:

• ATALANTA

Atalanta's apples, distracted them from further steady and gradual progress towards universal truth . In place of these straggling efforts of the unassisted human mind, a graduated system of See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps was to be supplied, by the use of which the mind, when placed on the right road, would proceed with unerring and See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical certainty to the invention of new arts and sciences . Such were to be the peculiar functions of the new method, though it has not definitely appeared what that method was, or to what objects it could be applied . But, before proceeding to unfold his method, Bacon found it necessary to enter in considerable detail upon the general subject of the obstacles to progress, and devoted nearly the whole of the first book of the Organum to the examination of them . This discussion, though strictly speaking extraneous to the scheme, has always been looked upon as a most important part of his philosophy, and his name is perhaps as much associated with the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of Idols (Idola) as with the theory of See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction or the classification of the sciences . The doctrine of the kinds of fallacies or general classes of errors into which the human mind is prone to fall, appears in many of the works written before the Novum Organum, and the treatment of them varies in some respects . The classification in the Organum, however, not only has the author's See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction, but has received the See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp of historical acceptation; and comparison of the earlier notices, though a point of literary interest, has no important philosophic bearing .

The Idola (Nov . Org . 39)1 false notions of things, or erroneous ways of looking at nature, areof four kinds: the first two innate, pertaining to the very nature of the mind and not to be eradicated; the third creeping insensibly into men's minds, and hence in a sense innate and inseparable; the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth imposed from without . The first kind are the Idola Tribus, idols of the tribe, fallacies incident to humanity or the See also:

• RACE

race in general . Of these, the most prominent are—the proneness to suppose in nature greater order and regularity than there actually is; the tendency to support a preconceived See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion by affirmative instances, neglecting all negative or opposed cases; and the tendency to generalize from few observations, or to give reality to mere abstractions, figments of the mind . Manifold errors also result from the weakness of the senses, which affords scope for mere conjecture; from the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence exercised over the understanding by the will and passions; from the restless See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the mind to penetrate to the ultimate principles of things; and from the belief that " man is the measure of the universe," whereas, in truth, the world is received by us in a distorted and erroneous manner . The second kind are the Idola Specus, idols of the See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave, or errors incident to the peculiar See also:

• MENTAL

mental or bodily constitution of each individual, for according to the state of the individual's mind is his view of things . Errors of this class are innumerable, because there are numberless varieties of disposition; but some very prominent specimens can be indicated . Such are the tendency to make all things subservient to, or take the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of some favourite subject, the extreme fondness and reverence either for what is ancient or for what is modern, and excess in noting either See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences or resemblances amongst things . A practical See also:

• RULE

rule for avoiding these is also given: " In general let every student of nature take this as a rule, that what-ever his mind seizes and dwells upon with particular satisfaction is to be held in suspicion."' The third class are the Idola Pori, idols of the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-place, errors arising from the influence exercised over the mind by mere words . This, according to 'The word Idola is manifestly borrowed from See also:

• PLATO

Plato . It is used twice in connexion with the Platonic Ideas (N .

0. i . 23, 124) and is contrasted with them as the false See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . The el6wXod with Plato is the fleeting, transient See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image of the real thing, and the passage evidently referred to by Bacon is that in the See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

Rep. vii . 516 A, Kai FpWTOV /LEV TkS QKLaS av (3, ara KaOoptin, gal /See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed roUTo v roil USQ.OL TQ re r&v &vepcSFwz Kai rd r ,v &XXwv e%bwXa, tur€pov Si afiTd . It is explained well in the Advancement, bk. i . (Works, iii . 287) . (For valuable notes on the Idola, see T . See also:

• FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867)
• FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714)
• FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864)
• FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898)
• FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 156o-1614)

Fowler's Nov . Org. i . 38 notes; especially for a comparison of the Idola with See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger Bacon's Offendicula.) Y N . 0. i .

58 . Bacon, is the most troublesome kind of error, and has been especially fatal in philosophy . For words introduce a fallacious mode of looking at things in two ways: first, there are some words that are really merely names for non-existent things, which are yet supposed to exist simply because they have received a name; secondly, there are names hastily and unskilfully abstracted from a few objects and applied recklessly to all that has the faintest See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy with these objects, thus causing the grossest confusion . The fourth and last class are the Idola Theatri, idols of the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, i.e. fallacious modes of thinking resulting from received systems of philosophy and from erroneous methods of demonstration . The criticism of the demonstrations is introduced later in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with Bacon's new method; they are the See also:

• RIVAL

rival modes of See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, to which his own is definitely opposed . The philosophies which are " redargued " are divided into three classes, the sophistical, of which the best example is See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, who, according to Bacon, forces nature into his abstract schemata and thinks to explain by See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions; the empirical, which from few and limited experiments leaps at once to general conclusions; and the superstitious, which corrupts philosophy by the introduction of poetical and theological notions . Such are the general causes of the errors that infest the human mind; by their exposure the way is cleared for the introduction of the new method . The nature of this method cannot be understood until it is exactly seen to what it is to be applied . What idea had Bacon of science, and how is his method connected with it ? Now, the science3 which was specially and invariably contemplated by him was natural philosophy, the great See also:

• MOTHER

mother of all the sciences; it was to him the type of scientific knowledge, and its method was the method of all true science . To discover exactly the characteristics and the object of natural philosophy it is necessary to examine the place it holds in the general scheme furnished in the Advancement or De Augmentis . All human knowledge, it is there laid down, may be referred to man's memory or imagination or See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason .

In the first, the See also:

• BARE

bare facts presented to sense are collected and stored up; the exposition of them is history, which is either natural or See also:

• CIVIL

civil . In the second, the materials of sense are separated or divided in ways not corresponding to nature but after the mind's own See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, and the result is poesy or feigned history . In the third, the materials are worked up after the model or See also:

• PATTERN

pattern of nature, though we are prone to err in the progress from sense to reason; the result is philosophy, which is concerned either with See also:

• GOD

God, with nature or with man, the second being the most important . Natural philosophy is again divided into speculative or theoretical and operative or practical, according as the end is contemplation or works . Speculative or theoretical natural philosophy has to See also:

• DEAL

deal with natural substances and qualities and is subdivided into physics and See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics . Physics inquires into the efficient and material causes of things; metaphysics, into the formal and final causes . The principal objects of physics are See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete substances, or abstract though See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical qualities . The See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research into abstract qualities, the fundamental problem of physics, comes near to the metaphysical study of forms, which indeed differs from the first only in being more general, and in having as its results a form strictly so called, i.e. a nature or quality which is a See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation or specific manifestation of some higher and better-known genus.' Natural philosophy is, therefore, in ultimate resort the study of forms, and, consequently, the fundamental problem of philosophy in general is the discovery of these forms . " On a given See also:

• BODY

body to generate or superinduce a new nature or natures, is the work and aim of human power . . . . Of a given nature to discover the form or true specific difference, or nature-engendering nature (nature naturans) or source of See also:

• EMANATION (Lat. emanatio, from e-, out, manare, to flow)

emanation (for these are the terms which are nearest to a description cf the thing), is the work and aim of human knowledge." 6 The questions, then, whose answers give the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the whole Baconian philosophy, may be put briefly thus—What are N . 0. i .

79, 8o, 98, 1o8 . ' On the meaning of the word form in Bacon's theory see also Fowler's N . O. introd . § 8 . 6 N . 0. ii . 1 . forms? and how is it that knowledge of them solves both the theoretical and the practical problem of science ? Bacon himself, as may be seen from the passage quoted above, finds great difficulty in giving an adequate and exact See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of what he means by a form . As a general description, the following passage from the Novum Organum, ii . 4, may be cited: " The form of a nature is such that given the form the nature infallibly follows . Again, the form is such that if it be taken away the nature infallibly vanishes .

. Lastly, the true form is such that it deduces the given nature from some source of being which is inherent in more natures, and which is better known in the natural order of things than the form itself."' From this it would appear that, since by a nature is meant some sensible quality, superinduced upon, or possessed by, a body, so by a form we are to understand the cause of that nature, which cause is itself a determinate See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case or manifestation of some general or abstract quality inherent in a greater number of objects . But all these are mostly marks by which a form may be recognized, and do not explain what the form really is . A further definition is accordingly attempted in Aph . 13: " The form of a thing is the very thing itself, and the thing differs from the form no otherwise than as the apparent differs from the real, or the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external from the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal, or the thing in reference to the man from the thing in reference to the universe." This throws a new See also:

• LIGHT

light on the question, and from it the inference at once follows, that the forms are the permanent causes or substances underlying all visible phenomena, which are merely manifestations of their activity . Are the forms, then, forces ? At times it seems as if Bacon had approximated to this view of the nature of things, for in several passages he identifies forms with laws of activity . Thus, he says "When I speak of forms I mean nothing more than those laws and determinations of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute actuality which govern and constitute any See also:

• SIMPLE

simple nature, as See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, light, See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, in every kind of matter and subject that is susceptible of them . Thus the form of heat or the form of light is the same thing as the law of heat or the law of light." " Matter rather than forms should be the object of our attention, its configurations and changes of configuration, and simple action, and law of action or See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion; for forms are figments of the human mind, unless you will call those laws of action forms." " Forms or true differences of things, which are in fact laws of pure See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act." ' " For though in nature nothing really exists besides individual bodies; performing pure individual acts according to a fixed law, yet in philosophy this very law, and the investigation, discovery and explanation of it, is the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation as well of knowledge as of operation . And it is this law, with its clauses, that I mean when I speak of forms." 6 Several important conclusions may be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from these passages . In the first place, it is evident that Bacon, like the Atomical school, of whom he highly approved, had a clear See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception and a See also:

• FIRM

firm grasp of the physical character of natural principles; his forms are no ideas or abstractions, but highly general physical properties . Further, it is hinted that these general qualities may be looked upon as the modes of action of simple bodies . This fruitful conception, however, Bacon does not work out; and though he uses the word cause, and identifies form with formal cause, yet it is perfectly apparent that the modern notions of cause as dynamical, and of nature as in a process of flow or development, are See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign to him, and that in his view of the ultimate problem of science, cause meant causa immanens, or underlying substance, effects were not consequents but manifestations, and nature was regarded in a purely statical aspect .

That this is so appears even more clearly when we examine his general conception of the unity, gradation and See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the sciences . That the sciences are organically connected is a thought See also:

• COMMON

common to him and to his distinguished predecessor Roger Bacon . " I that hold it for a great impediment towards the advancement and further invention of knowledge, that particular arts and sciences have been See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die-incorporated from general knowledge, do not understand one ' This better known in the order of nature is nowhere satisfactorily explained by Bacon . Like his classification of causes, and in some degree his notion of form itself, it comes from Aristotle . See An . See also:

• POST

Post . 71 b 33; Topic, 141 b 5; Eth . I095 a 30 . It should be observed that many writers maintain that the phrase should be notion nature ; others, notiora naturae . See Fowler's N . 0. p . 199 See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note .

s N . 0, it 17 . 5 Ibid. i . 51 . ' Ibid. i . 75 . ' Ibid. ii . 2.and the same thing which See also:

• CICERO

Cicero's discourse and the note and conceit of the Grecians in their word circle learning do intend . For I mean not that use which one science hath of another for See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament or help in practice; but I mean it directly of that use by way of See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of light and See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, which the particulars and instances of one science do yield and present for the framing or correcting of the axioms of another science in their very truth and notion." 8 In accordance with this, Bacon placed at the basis of the particular sciences which treat of God, nature and man, one fundamental doctrine, the Prima Philosophia, or first philosophy, the function of which was to display the unity of nature by connecting into one body of truth such of the highest axioms of the subordinate sciences as were not See also:

• SPECIAL

special to one science, but common to several.' This first ,philosophy had also to investigate what are called the See also:

• ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad)

adventitious or transcendental conditions of essences, such as Much, Little, Like, Unlike, Possible, Impossible, Being, Nothing, the logical discussion of which certainly belonged rather to the laws of reasoning than to the existence of things, but the physical or real treatment of which might be expected to yield answers to such questions as, why certain substances are numerous, others scarce; or why, if like attracts like, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron does not attract iron . Following this See also:

• SUMMARY

summary philosophy come the sciences proper, rising like a See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid in successive stages, the lowest See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor being occupied by natural history or experience, the second by physics, the third, which is next the See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of unity, by metaphysics.$ The knowledge of the peak, or of the one law which binds nature together, is perhaps denied to man . Of the sciences, physics, as has been already seen, deals with the efficient and material, i.e. with the variable and transient, causes of things . But its inquiries may be directed either towards concrete bodies or towards abstract qualities .

The first kind of investigation rises little above mere natural history; but the other is more important and paves the way for metaphysics . It handles the configurations and the appetites or motions of matter . The configurations, or inner structure of bodies, include dense, rare, heavy, light, hot, See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, &c.,—in fact, what are elsewhere called simple natures . Motions9 are either simple or See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound, the latter being the sum of a number of the former . In physics, however, these matters are treated only as regards their material or efficient causes, and the result of inquiry into any one case gives no general rule, but only facilitates invention in some similar instance . Metaphysics, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, treats of the formal or final cause10 of these same substances and qualities, and results in a general rule . With regard to forms, the investigation may be directed either towards concrete. bodies or towards qualities . But the forms of substances " are so perplexed and complicated, that it is either vain to inquire into them at all, or such inquiry as is possible should be put off for a time, and not entered upon till forms of a more simple nature have been rightly investigated and discussed."n "To inquire into the form of a See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, of an See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, or See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, See also:

• NAY, or NEY

nay, even of See also:

• WATER

water or See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, is a vain pursuit; but to inquire the form of dense, rare, hot, cold, &c., as well configurations as motions, which in treating of physic I have in 6 Valerius Terminus, iii . 228-229 . 7 Cf . N . 0. ii .

27 . Bacon nowhere enters upon the questions of how such a science is to be constructed, and how it can be expected to possess an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent method while it remains the mere receptacle for the generalizations of the several sciences, and consequently has a content which varies with their progress . His whole conception of Prima Philosophia should be compared with such a modern work as the First Principles of Herbert Spencer . ° It is to be noticed that this See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of nature corresponds with the scale of ascending axioms . 9 Cf. also for motions, N . O. ii . 48 . '0 The knowledge of final causes does not See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to works, and the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of them must be rigidly excluded from physics . Yet there is no opposition between the physical and final causes; in ultimate resort the mind is compelled to think the universe as the work. of reason, to refer facts to God and See also:

• PROVIDENCE

Providence . The idea of final cause is also fruitful in sciences which have to do with human action . (Cf . De Aug. iii. cc .

4, 5; Nov . Org. i . 48, ii . 2.) " De Aug. iii . 4 . In the Advancement (Works, iii . 355) it is distinctly said that they are not to be inquired into . One can hardly see how the Baconian method could have, applied to concrete substances . great part enumerated (I call them forms of the first class), and which (like the letters of the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet) are not many, and yet make up and sustain the essences and forms of all substances—this, I say, it is which I am attempting, and which constitutes and defines that part of metaphysic of which we are now inquiring." Physics inquires into the same qualities, but does not push its investigations into ultimate reality or reach the more general causes . We thus at last attain a definite conclusion with regard to forms, and it appears clear that in Bacon's belief the true function of science was the search for a few fundamental physical qualities, highly abstract and general, the combinations of which give rise to the simple natures and complex phenomena around us . His general conception of the universe may therefore be called mechanical or statical; the cause of each phenomenon is sup-posed to be actually contained in the phenomenon itself, and by a sufficiently accurate process could be sifted out and brought to light . As soon as the causes are known man regains his power over nature, for " whosoever knows any form, knows also the utmost possibility of superinducing that nature upon every variety of matter, and so is less restrained and tied in operation either to the basis of the matter or to the condition of the efficients." 1 Nature thus presented itself to Bacon's mind as a huge congeries of phenomena, the manifestations of some simple and primitive qualities, which were hid from us by the complexity of the things themselves .

The world was a vast See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

labyrinth, amid the windings of which we require some See also:

• CLUE

clue or See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread whereby we may track our way to knowledge and thence to power . This thread, the filum labyrinthi, is the new method of induction . But, as has been frequently pointed out, the new method could not be applied until facts had been observed and collected . This is an indispensable preliminary . " Man, the servant and interpreter of nature, can do and understand so much, and so much only, as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything." The proposition that our knowledge of nature necessarily begins with observation and experience, is common to Bacon and many contemporary reformers of science, but he laid peculiar stress upon it, and gave it a new meaning . What he really meant by observation was a competent natural history or collection of facts . " The firm See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of a purer natural philosophy are laid in natural history." 2 " First of all we must prepare a natural and experimental history, sufficient and good; and this is the foundation of all." 3 The senses and the memory, which collect and See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store up facts, must be assisted; there must be a ministration of the senses and another of the memory . For not only are instances required, but these must be arranged in such a manner as not to distract or confuse the mind, i.e. tables and arrangements of instances must be constructed . In the preliminary collection the greatest care must be taken that the mind be absolutely free from preconceived ideas; nature is only to be conquered by obedience; man must be merely receptive . " All depends on keeping the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye steadily fixed upon the facts of nature, and so receiving their images simply as they are; for God forbid that we should give out a See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of our own imagination for a pattern of the world; rather may He graciously See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant to us to write an See also:

• APOCALYPSE
• APOCALYPSE (Gr. aaoKaXvti/hr, disclosure)
• APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE

apocalypse or true See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of the footsteps of the Creator imprinted on his creatures." 4 Concealed among the facts presented to sense are the causes or forms, and the problem therefore is so to analyse experience,5 so to break it up into pieces, that we shall with certainty and mechanical ease arrive at a true conclusion . This process, which forms the essence of the new method, may in its entirety, as a ministration to the reason, be called a See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic; but it differs widely from the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary or school logic in end, method and form . Its aim is to acquire command over nature by knowledge, and to invent new arts, whereas the old logic strove only after See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic victories and the 1 Thus the last step in the theoretical analysis gives the first means for the practical operation .

Cf . Aristotle, Eth . Nic. iii . 3 . 12, Tb g0xa rov iv Di hvaXt i EL 7rp&See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

TOP stvai EY en yevicr L . Cf. also Nov . Org. i . 103 . 2 Cogitations (Works, iii . 187) . 3 N . 0. ii. to .

4 Pref. to Instaur . Cf . Valerius See also:

• TERM

Term . (Works, iii . 224), and N . O. i . 68, 124 . 3 Pref. to Inst.discovery of new arguments . In method the difference is even more fundamental . Hitherto the mode of demonstration had been by the syllogism; but the syllogism is, in many respects, an incompetent weapon . It is compelled to accept its first principles on See also:

• TRUST

trust from the science in which it is employed; it cannot See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with the subtlety of nature; and it is radically vitiated by being founded on hastily and inaccurately abstracted notions of things . For a syllogism consists of propositions, propositions of words, and words are the symbols of notions .

Now the first step in accurate progress from sense to reason, or true philosophy, is to See also:

• FRAME

frame a See also:

• BONA (BONE)
• BONA, JOHN (1609-1674)

bona notio or accurate conception of the thing; but the received logic never does this . It flies off at once from experience and particulars to the highest and most general propositions, and from these descends, by the use of See also:

• MIDDLE

middle terms, to axioms of See also:

• LOWER

lower generality . Such a mode of procedure may be called anticipatio naturae (for in it reason is allowed to prescribe to things), and is opposed to the true method, the inter pretatio naturae, in which reason follows and obeys nature, discovering her secrets by obedience and sub-See also:

• MISSION

mission to rule . Lastly, the very form of induction that has been used by logicians in the collection of their instances is a weak and useless thing . It is a mere enumeration of a few known facts, makes no use of exclusions or rejections, concludes precariously, and is always liable to be overthrown by a negative instance.6 In See also:

• RAD