See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

ROGER See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• ROGER BACON (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

BACON (c. 1214-c. 1294)  , See also:

• ENGLISH

English philosopher and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born near See also:

• ILCHESTER

Ilchester in See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

Somerset . His See also:

• FAMILY

family appears to have been in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good circumstances, but in the stormy reign of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry III. their See also:

• PROPERTY

property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile . See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger completed his studies at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, though not, as current traditions assert, at Merton or at Brasenose, neither of which had then been founded . His abilities were speedily recognized by his contemporaries, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam de Marisco and See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175—1253)

Grosseteste, See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln . Very little is known of See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon's See also:

• LIFE

life at Oxford; it is said he took orders in 1233, and this is not improbable . In the following See also:

• YEAR

year. or perhaps later, he crossed over to See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and studied at the university of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, then the centre of intellectual life in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, The two See also:

• GREAT

great orders, See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans and See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans, were in the vigour of youth, and had already begun to take the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead in theological discussion . See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander of See also:

• HALES, JOHN (1584-1656)
• HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571)
• HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761)

Hales was the See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle of the Franciscans, while the See also:

• RIVAL

rival See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order rejoiced in Albertus See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus and See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas . The scientific training which Bacon had received, mainly from the study of the Arab writers, showed him the manifold defects in the systems reared by these doctors . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle was known but in See also:

• PART

part, and that part was rendered well-nigh unintelligible through the vileness of the See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations; yet not one of those professors would learn See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek . The Scriptures read, if at all, in the erroneous versions were being deserted for the Sentences of See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter Lombard . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical science, if there was anything deserving that name, was cultivated, not by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments deduced from premises resting on authority or See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . Everywhere there was a show of know-ledge concealing fundamental See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance .

Bacon, accordingly, withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages and experimental See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research . The only teacher whom he respected was a certain Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or of See also:

• PICARDY (La Picardie)

Picardy, probably identical with a certain mathematician, Petrus Peregrinus of Picardy, who is perhaps the author of a MS. See also:

• TREATISE

treatise, De Magnete, contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris . The contrast between the obscurity of such a man an) the fame enjoyed by the fluent See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young doctors roused Bacon's indignation . In the See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus Minus and Opus Tertium he pours forth a violent tirade against Alexander of Hales, and another See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor, not mentioned by name, but spoken of as alive, and blamed even more severely than Alexander . This See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous writer,' he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone, which has caused him to be received at Paris with See also:

• APPLAUSE (Lat. applaudere, to strike upon, clap)

applause as the equal of Aristotle, See also:

• AVICENNA

Avicenna, or See also:

• AVERROES [Abul - Walid Muhammad ibn - Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198)

Averroes . Bacon, during his stay in Paris, acquired considerable renown . He took the degree of See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, and seems to have received the complimentary See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of doctor mirabilis . In 1250 he was again at Oxford, and probably about this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time entered the Franciscan order . His fame spread at Oxford, though it was mingled with suspicions of his dealings in the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black arts and with some doubts of his orthodoxy . About 1257, See also:

• BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA)

Bonaventura, See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of the order, interdicted his lectures at Oxford, and commanded him to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place himself under the superintendence of the See also:

• BODY

body at Paris . Here for ten years he remained under supervision, suffering great privations and strictly prohibited from See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing anything for publication . But his fame had reached the ears of the papal See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de Foulques, who in 1265 became See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope as See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement IV .

In the following year he wrote to Bacon, ordering him notwithstanding any injunctions from his superiors, to write out and send to him a treatise on the sciences which he had already asked of him when papal legate . Bacon, whose previous writings had been mostly scattered tracts, capitula quaedam, took fresh courage from this command of the pope . He set at naught the See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of his superiors and See also:

• BROTHER

brother friars, and despite the want of funds, See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, materials for copying and skilled copyists, completed in about eighteen months three large See also:

• TREATISES

treatises, the Opus Majus, Opus Minus and Opus Tertium, which, with some other tracts, were despatched to the pope . We do not know what See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion Clement formed of them, but before his See also:

• DEATH

death he seems to have bestirred himself on Bacon's behalf, for in 1268 the latter was permitted to return to Oxford . Here he continued his labours in experimental science and also in the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete treatises . The See also:

• WORKS

works sent to Clement he regarded as preliminaries, laying down principles which were afterwards to be applied to the sciences, The first part of an encyclopaedic See also:

• WORK

work probably remains to us in the Compendium Studii Philosophiae (1271) . In this work Bacon makes a vehement attack upon the ignorance and vices of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and monks, and generally upon the insufficiency of the existing studies . In 1278 his books were condemned by See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome de See also:

• ASCOLI
• ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA (1829–1907)

Ascoli, general of the Franciscans, afterwards Pope See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas IV., and he himself was thrown into See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison for fourteen years . During this time, it is said, he wrote the small See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus, but this is merely a tradition . In 1292, as appears from what is probably his latest composition, the Compendium Studii Theologiae, he was again at See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty . The exact time of his death cannot be determined; 1294 is probably as accurate a date as can be fixed upon . Works and See also:

• EDITIONS

Editions.—See also:

• LELAND (LEYLAND Or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552)
• LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903)
• LELAND, JOHN (1691–1766)

Leland said that it is easier to collect the leaves of the Sibyl than the titles of the works written by Roger Bacon; and though the labour has been somewhat lightened by the publications of See also:

• BREWER, JOHN SHERREN (1810-1879)

Brewer and See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles, referred to below, it is no easy See also:

• MATTER

matter even now to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an accurate See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of his actual productions .

An enormous number of See also:

• MSS

MSS. are known to exist in See also:

• BRITISH

British and See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries, and probably ' Brewer thinks this unknown professor is See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard of See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall, but the little we know of Richard is not in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with the terms in which he is elsewhere spoken of by Bacon . See also:

• ERDMANN
• ERDMANN, JOHANN EDUARD (1805-1892)

Erdmann conjectures Thomas Aquinas, which is extremely improbable, as Thomas was unquestionably not the first of his order to study See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

Cousin and Charles think that Albertus Magnus is aimed at, and certainly much of what is said applies with See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar force to him . But some things do not at all cohere with what is otherwise known of See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert . It is See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth pointing out that Brewer, in transcribing the passage bearing on this (Op . Ined. p . 327), has the words fratrum puerulus, which in his marginal See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note he interprets as applying to the Franciscan order . In this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, of course, Albert could not be the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person referred to, as he was a Dominican . But Charles, in his transcription, entirely omits the important word fratrum.not all have yet been discovered . Many are transcripts of works or portions of works already published and, therefore, require no See also:

• NOTICE

notice.' The works hitherto printed (neglecting reprints) are the following: (1) See also:

• SPECULUM

Speculum Alchimiae (1541)—translated into English (1597); French, A See also:

• POISSON, SIMEON DENIS (1781-1840)

Poisson (189o); (2) De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae (1542)—English See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation (1659); (3) Libellus de Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus (1590)—translated as the " Cure of Old See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age," by Richard See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1683); (4) Sanioris Medicinae Magistri D . Rogeri Baconis Anglici de Arte Chymiae Scripta (See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort, 1603)—a collection of small tracts containing Excerpta de Libro Avicennae de Anima, Breve Breviarium, Verbum Abbreviatum,3 Secretum Secretorum, Tract at us Trium Verborum, and , Speculum Secretorum; (5) Perspectiva (1614), which is the fifth part of the Opus Majus; (6) Specula Mathematica, which is the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth part of the same; (7) Opus Majus ad Clementem IV., edited by S . See also:

• JEBB, JOHN (1736–1786)
• JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOTJSE (1841–1905)

Jebb (1733) and J .

H . See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

Bridges (London, 1897); (8) See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera hactenus Inedita, by J . S . Brewer (1859), containing the Opus Tertium, Opus Minus, Compendium Studii Philosophiae and the De Secretis Operibus Naturae; (9) De Morali Philosophia (See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin, 186o, see below); (1o) The Greek See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

Grammar of R . Bacon and a Fragment of his See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew Grammar, edited with introduction and notes by E . S . Nolan and S . A . See also:

• HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH
• HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (r8o8-1888)

Hirsch (1902); (i1) Metaphysica Fratris Rogeri, edited by R . See also:

• STEELE
• STEELE, ANNE (1717-1778)
• STEELE, SIR RICHARD (1672-1729)
• STEELE, THOMAS (1788-1848)
• STEELE, WILLIAM (d. 1680)

Steele, with a See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface (1905); (12) Opera hactenus inedita, by Robert Steele (1905) . How these works stand related to one another can only be determined by See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence . The smaller works, chiefly on See also:

• ALCHEMY

alchemy, are unimportant, and the See also:

• DATES

dates of their composition cannot be ascertained .

It is known that before the Opus Majus Bacon had already written some tracts, among which an. unpublished work, Computus Naturalium,. on See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, belongs probably to the year 1263; while, if the See also:

• DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicare, to proclaim, to announce)

dedication of the De Secretis Operibus be See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic, that See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short treatise must have been composed before 1249 . It is, however, with the Opus Majus that Bacon's real activity begins . It has been called by See also:

• WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866)

Whewell at once the See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Encyclopaedia and the Organum of the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Part I . (pp . 1—22), which is sometimes designated De Utilitate Scientiarum, treats of the four off endicula, or causes of See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error . These are, authority, custom, the opinion of the unskilled many, and the concealment of real ignorance with pretence of knowledge . The last error is the most dangerous, and is, in a sense, the cause of all the others . The offendicula have sometimes been looked upon as an anticipation of See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis Bacon's Idola, but the two classifications have little in See also:

• COMMON

common . In the See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of this part, contained in the Opus Tertium, Bacon shows very clearly his See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception of the unity of science and the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of encyclopaedic treatment . Part II . (pp .

23—43) treats of the relation between philosophy and theology . All true See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom is contained in the Scriptures, at least implicitly; and the true end of philosophy is to rise from the imperfect knowledge of created things to a knowledge of the Creator . See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient philosophers, who had not the Scriptures, received See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination from See also:

• GOD

God, and only thus can the brilliant results attained by them be accounted for . Part III . (pp . 44—57) treats of the utility of grammar, and the necessity of a true linguistic science for the adequate comprehension either of the Scriptures or of books on philosophy . 2 The more important MSS. are:—(1) The extensive work on the fundamental notions of physics, called Communia Naturalium, which is found in the See also:

• MAZARIN, JULES (1602-1661)

Mazarin library at Paris, in the British Museum, and in the Bodleian and University See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College libraries at Oxford; (2) on the fundamental notions of See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, De Cornmunibus Mathematicae, part of which is in the See also:

• SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753)

Sloane collection, part in the Bodleian; (3) Baconis Physica, contained among the additional MSS. in the British Museum; (4) the fragment called Quinta Pars Compendii Theologiae, in the British Museum; (5) the Compendium Studii Theologiae, in the British Museum; (6) the logical fragments, such as the Summulae Dialectices, in the Bodleian, and the glosses upon Aristotle's physics and See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics in the library at See also:

• AMIENS

Amiens . See Little, The See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

Grey Friars in Oxford (1892) . 3 At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the Verb . Abbrev. is a curious note, concluding with the words, " ipse Rogerus fuit discipulus fratris See also:

• ALBERTI, DOMENICO (c. 1710–1740)
• ALBERTI, LEONE BATTISTA (1404–1472)

Alberti!" The necessity of accurate acquaintance with any See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and of obtaining good texts, is a subject Bacon is never weary of descanting upon . A translator should know thoroughly the language he is translating from, the language into which he is translating, and the subject of which the See also:

• BOOK

book treats . Part IV .

(pp . 57-255) contains an elaborate treatise on mathematics, " the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet of philosophy," maintaining that all the sciences See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest ultimately on mathematics, and progress only when their facts can be subsumed under mathematical principles . This fruitful thought he illustrates by showing how See also:

• GEOMETRY

geometry is applied to the See also:

• ACTION

action of natural bodies, and demonstrating by geometrical figures certain See also:

• LAWS

laws of physical forces . He also shows how his method may be used to determine some curious and See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-discussed problems, such as the See also:

• LIGHT

light of the stars, the ebb and flow of the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide, the See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance . He then proceeds to adduce elaborate and sometimes slightly See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque reasons tending to prove that mathematical knowledge is essential in theology, and closes this See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of his work with two comprehensive sketches of See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography and See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy . That on geography is particularly good, and is interesting as having been read by See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus, who lighted on it in Petrus de Alliaco's Imago lfundi, and was strongly influenced by its reasoning . Part V . (pp . 256-357) treats of See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective . This was the part 9f his work on which Bacon most prided himself, and in it, we may"add, he seems to owe most to the Arab writers Kindi and See also:

• ALHAZEN (ABU ALI AL-HASAN IBN ALHASAN)

Alhazen . The treatise opens with an able See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology, founded upon, but in some important respects varying foam, Aristotle's De Anima . The See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye is next described; this is done well and evidently at first See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, though the functions of the parts are not given with complete accuracy .

Many other points of physiological See also:

• OPTICS

optics are touched on, in general erroneously . Bacon then discusses See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision in a right See also:

• LINE

line, the laws of reflection and See also:

• REFRACTION
• REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart)

refraction, and the construction of mirrors and lenses . In this part of the work, as in the preceding, his reasoning depends essentially upon his peculiar view of natural agents and their activities . His fundamental physical See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims are matter and force ; the latter he calls virtus, See also:

• SPECIES

species, imago agentis, and by numberless other names . See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

Change, or any natural phenomenon, is produced by the impression of a virtus or species on matter—the result being the thing known . Physical action is, therefore, impression, or transmission of force in lines, and must accordingly be explained geometrically . This view of nature Bacon considered fundamental, and it lies, indeed, at the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of his whole philosophy . To the short notices of it given in the 4th and 5th parts of the Opus Majus, he subjoined two, or perhaps three, extended accounts of it . We possess at least one of these in the tract De Multiplicatione Specierum, printed as part of the Opus Majus by Jebb (pp . 358-444) . We cannot do more than refer to Charles for discussions as to how this theory of nature is connected with the metaphysical problems of force and matter, with the logical See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of universals, and in general with Bacon's theory of knowledge . Part VI .

(pp . 445-477) treats of experimental science, domina omnium scientiarum . There are two methods of knowledge: the one by See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument, the other by experience . See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

Mere argument is never sufficient ; it may decide a question, but gives no See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction or certainty to the mind, which can only be convinced by immediate inspection or See also:

• INTUITION (from Lat. intueri, to look at)

intuition . Now this is what experience gives . But experience is of two sorts, See also:

• EXTERNAL

external and internal ; the first is that usually called experiment, but it can give no complete knowledge even of corporeal things, much less of spiritual . On the other hand, in inner experience the mind is illuminated by the divine truth, and of this supernatural enlightenment there are seven grades . Experimental science, which in the Opus Tertium (p . 46) is distinguished from the speculative sciences and the operative arts in a way that forcibly reminds us of Francis Bacon, is said to have three great prerogatives over all other sciences:—(1) It verifies their conclusions by direct experiment; (2) It discovers truths which they could never reach; (3) It investigates the secrets of nature, and opens to us a knowledge of past and future . As an instance of his method, Bacon gives an investigation intothe nature and cause of the See also:

• RAINBOW

rainbow, which is really a very See also:

• FINE

fine specimen of inductive research . The seventh part of the Opus Majus (De Morali Philosophia), not given in Jebb's edition, is noticed at considerable length in the Opus Tertium (cap. xiv.) . Extracts from it are given by Charles (pp .

339-348)• As.has been seen, Bacon had no sooner finished this elaborate work than he began to prepare a summary to be sent along with it . Of this summary, or Opus Minus, part has come down and is published in Brewer's Op . Ined . (313-389), from what appears to be the only MS . The work was intended to contain an abstract of the Opus Majus, an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal vices of theology, and treatises on speculative and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical alchemy . At the same time, or immediately after, Bacon began a third work as a pre-amble to the other two, giving their general See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope and aim, but supplementing them in many points . The part of this work, generally called Opus Tertium, is printed by Brewer (pp . 1-310), who considers it to be a complete treatise . Charles, however, has given good grounds for supposing that it is merely a preface, and that the work went on to discuss grammar, See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic (which Bacon thought of little service, as reasoning was innate), mathematics, general physics, metaphysics and moral philosophy . He founds his argument mainly on passages in the Communia Naturalium, which indeed prove distinctly that it was sent to Clement, and cannot, therefore, form part of the Compendium, as Brewer seems to think . It must be confessed, however, that nothing can well be more confusing than the references in Bacon's works, and it seems well-nigh hopeless to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt a complete arrangement of them until the texts have been collated and carefully printed . All these large works Bacon appears to have looked on as preliminaries, introductions, leading to a great work which should embrace the principles of all the sciences .

This great work, which is perhaps the frequently-referred-to See also:

• LIBER

Liber See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

Sex Scientiarum, he began, and a few fragments still indicate its outline . First appears to have come the treatise now called Compendium Studii Philosophiae (Brewer pp . 393-519), containing an account of the causes of error, and then entering at length upon grammar . After that, apparently, logic was to be treated; then, possibly, mathematics and physics; then speculative alchemy and experimental science . It is, however, very difficult, in the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of our knowledge of the MSS., to See also:

• HAZARD (0. Fr. hazard, from Span. czar, unlucky throw at dice, misfortune, from Arab. al, and zar, dice)

hazard even conjectures as to the contents and nature of this last and most comprehensive work . Bacon's fame in popular estimation has always rested on his See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical discoveries . Careful research has shown that very little can with accuracy be ascribed to him . He certainly describes a method of constructing a See also:

• TELESCOPE

telescope, but not so as to lead one to conclude that he was in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of that See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument . Burning-glasses were in common use, and See also:

• SPECTACLES

spectacles it does not appear he made, although he was probably acquainted with the principle of their construction . His wonderful predictions (in the De See also:

• SARDIS

Sardis) must be taken cum grano salis; he believed in See also:

• ASTROLOGY

astrology, in the doctrine of signatures, and in the philosopher's See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, and knew that the circle had been squared . For his work in connexion with See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder, the invention of which has been claimed for him on the ground of a passage in his De mirabili potestate artis et naturae, see GUNPOWDER . Summary.—The 13th century, an age peculiarly See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in great men, produced few, if any, who can take higher See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank than Roger Bacon .

He is in every way worthy to be placed beside Albertus Magnus, Bonaveiftura, and Thomas Aquinas . These had an infinitely wider renown in their See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, but See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism has restored the balance in his favour, and is even in danger of erring in the opposite direction . Bacon, it is now said, was not appreciated by his age because he was in advance of it; he is no schoolman, but a modern thinker, whose conceptions of science are more just and clear than are even those of his more celebrated namesake.' In this view there is certainly some truth, but it is much exaggerated . As a general See also:

• RULE

rule, no man can be completely dissevered from his See also:

• NATIONAL

national antecedents and ' See See also:

• DUHRING, EUGEN KARL (1833-1901)

Duhring, Kritische Ges. d . Phil . 192, 249-251 . 156 surroundings, and Bacon is not an exception . Those who take up such an extreme position regarding his merits have known too little of the state of contemporary science, and have limited their comparison to the works of the scholastic theologians . We never find in Bacon himself any consciousness of originality; he is rather a keen and systematic thinker, working in a well-beaten track, from which his contemporaries were being See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by theology and metaphysics .