GIOVANNI BATTISTA See also:

• GIOVANNI BATTISTA BECCARIA (1716-1781)

BECCARIA (1716-1781)  , See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian physicist, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• MONDOVI

Mondovi on the 3rd of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1716, and entered the religious See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the Pious See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools in 1732 . He became See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of experimental physics, first at See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo and then at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, and was appointed to a similar situation at See also:

• TURIN

Turin in 1748 . He was afterwards made See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor to the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at Turin during the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of his See also:

• LIFE

life . In May 1755 he was elected a See also:

• FELLOW

fellow of the Royal Society of See also:

• LONDON

London, and published several papers on See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical subjects in the Phil . Trans . He died at Turin on the 27th of May 1781 . See also:

• BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781)

Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of See also:

• FRANKLIN
• FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790)
• FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847)
• FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903)

Franklin and others . His See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• WORK

work was the See also:

• TREATISE

treatise Dell' Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale (1753), which was translated into See also:

• ENGLISH

English in 1776 . BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (1735-1794), Italian publicist, was born at See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan on the 15th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1735 . He was educated in the Jesuit See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college at See also:

• PARMA

Parma, and showed at first a See also:

• GREAT

great aptitude for See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics . The study of See also:

• MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES LOUIS DE SECONDAT, BARON DE LA BREDE ET DE (1689-1755)

Montesquieu seems to have directed his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention towards economic questions; and his first publication (1762) was a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states, with a proposal for its remedy . Shortly after, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends the Verris, he formed a See also:

• LITERARY

literary society, and began to publish a small See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

journal, in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of the Spectator, called Il Caffe .

In 1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated treatise Dei Delitti e Belle Pene (" On Crimes and Punishments ") . The weighty reasonings of this work were expounded with all the additional force of a clear and animated See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . It pointed out distinctly and temperately the grounds of the right of See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment, and from these principles deduced certain propositions as to the nature and amount of punishment which should be inflicted for any See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime . The See also:

• BOOK

book had a surprising success . Within eighteen months it passed through six See also:

• EDITIONS

editions . It was translated into See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French by See also:

• MORELLET, ANDRE (1727-1819)

Morellet in 1766, and published with an See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous commentary by See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

Voltaire . An English See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation appeared in 1768 and it was translated into several other See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . Many of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal See also:

• EUROPEAN

European nations are traceable to Beccaria's treatise . In See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1768 he was appointed to the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and See also:

• ECONOMY

economy, which had been founded expressly for him at the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine college of Milan . His lectures on See also:

• POLITICAL

political economy, which are based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories of the English school of economists . They are published in the collection of Italian writers on political economy (Scrittori Classici Italiani di Economia politica, vols. xi. and xii.) . In 1771 Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council; and in 1791 he was appointed one of the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board for the reform of the judicial See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code .

In this See also:

• POST

post his labours were of very great value . He died at Milan on the 28th of November 1794 .