See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

SAINT See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• SAINT BERNARD
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

BERNARD  .) At the very moment when the papacy thus attained omnipotence, symptoms of discontent and opposition arose . The Resistance bishops resisted centralization . See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop See also:

• HILDEBERT, HYDALBERT, GILDEBERT

Hildebert to thePapal of See also:

• TOURS

Tours protested to See also:

• HONORIUS
• HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423)

Honorius IL against the exactions appeals to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, while others complained of the and exactions of the legates, or, like See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John of See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612)
• SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4TH EARL OF (1388-1428)
• SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPEE), EARL OF (d. 1226)

Salisbury, encroach• animadverted upon the excessive See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the meets . bureaucracy at the Lateran . In the See also:

• COUNCILS

councils See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange speeches were heard from the mouths of laymen, who were beginning to carry to extreme lengths the spirit of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence with regard to Rome . When a question arose at See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Toulouse in 116o as to the best means of settling the papal See also:

• SCHISM

schism, this audacious statement was made before the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England: " That the best course was to See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side with neither of the two popes; that the apostolic see had been ever a See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden to the princes; that See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage must be taken of the schism to throw off the yoke; and that, while awaiting the See also:

• DEATH

death of one of the competitors, the authority of the bishops was sufficient in France and England alike for the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the churches." The ecclesiastics themselves, however, were the first to denounce the abuses at Rome . The See also:

• TREATISES

treatises of Gerhoh of Reichersberg (1093–1169) abound in trenchant attacks upon the greed and venality of the See also:

• CURIA

Curia, the arrogance and See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion of the legates, the abuse of exemptions and appeals, and the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German policy of See also:

• ADRIAN
• ADRIAN, SAINT

Adrian IV. and See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander III . In his efforts to make the papal institution entirely worthy of its See also:

• MISSION

mission St See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard himself did not shrink from presenting to the papacy " the See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror in which it could recognize its deformities." In See also:

• COMMON

common with all enlightened See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, he complained bitterly of the excessive multiplication of exemptions, of the exaggerated See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of appeals to Rome, of the luxury of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, of the venality of the cardinals, and of the injury done to the traditional See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy by the very extent of the papal See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, which was calculated to turn the strongest See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . In St Bernard's See also:

• TREATISE

treatise De See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration, addressed to See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• EUGENIUS

Eugenius III., the papacy receives as many reprimands and attacks as it does marks of See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection and friendly counsel . To warn Eugenius against See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride, Bernard reminds him in biblical terms that an insensate See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign on a See also:

• THRONE

throne resembles " an See also:

• APE (Old Eng. ape; Dutch aap; Old Ger. a ffo; Welsh epa; Old Bohemian op; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the animal's chatter)

ape upon a housetop," and that the dignity with which he is invested does not prevent him from being a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, that is, " a being, naked, poor, miserable, made for toil and not for honours." To his thinking, See also:

• POISON

poison and the See also:

• DAGGER

dagger were less to be feared by the pope than the lust of power . Ambition and cupidity were the source of the most deplorable abuses in the Roman See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . The cardinals, said Bernard, were satraps who put pomp before the truth .

He was at a loss to justify the unheard-of luxury of the Roman court . " I do not find," he said, " that St See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter ever appeared in public loaded with See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and jewels, clad in See also:

• SILK

silk, mounted on a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule, surrounded by soldiers and followed by a brilliant See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

retinue . In the glitter that environs thee, rather wouldst See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou be taken for the successor of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine than for the successor of Peter." Rome, however, had greater dangers to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with than the indignant reproofs of her See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends the monks, and the opposition Growth of of the bishops, who were displeased at the spectacle Heretical of their authority waning See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day by day . It was at sects. this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period that the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic edifice of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages began to be shaken by the boldness of philosophical See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation as applied to theological studies and also by the growth of See also:

• HERESY

heresy . Hitherto more tolerant of heresy than the See also:

• LOCAL

local authorities, the papacy now See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt compelled to take defensive See also:

• MEASURES

measures against it, and especially against Albigensianism, which had made See also:

• GREAT

great strides in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of France since the middle of the 12th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Innocent II., Eugenius III. and Alexander III. excommunicated the sectaries of See also:

• LANGUEDOC

Languedoc and their abettors, Alexander even sending armed See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions tohunt them down and punish them . But the See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching of the papal legates, even when supported by military demonstrations, had no effect; and the Albigensian question, together with other questions vital for the future of the papacy, remained unsettled and more formidable than ever when Innocent III. was elected . 3 . Period from Innocent III. to Alexander ,I V . (1198-1261).—Under the pontificates of Innocent III. and his five immediate successors the Roman See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy seemed to have Innocent reached the See also:

• PINNACLE (from Lat. pinnaculum, a little feather, pinna; the Gr. rrspirylov, diminutive of irsipuE, wing, is also used in this sense)

pinnacle of its moral See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige, religious III•, II98• authority and temporal power, and this development 1216• was due in great measure to Innocent III. himself . Between the perhaps excessive admiration of Innocent's biographer, See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich von Hurter, and the cooler estimate of a later historian, See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix Rocquain, who, after taking into consideration Innocent's See also:

• POLITICAL

political mistakes, lack of foresight and numerous disappointments and failures, concludes that his reputation has been much exaggerated, it is possible to See also:

• STEER, PAUL WILSON (186o– )

steer a middle course and See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment that is at once impartial and conformable to the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical facts . Innocent was an eminent jurist and canoeist, and never ceased to use his immense power in the service of the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law .

Indeed, a great See also:

• PART

part of his See also:

• LIFE

life was passed in See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing pleadings and pronouncing judgments, and few sovereigns have ever worked so industriously or shown such solicitude for the impartial exercise of their judicial functions . It is difficult to comprehend Innocent's extraordinary activity . Over and above the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of political affairs, he See also:

• BORE

bore resolutely for eighteen years the overwhelming burden of the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of a tribunal before which the whole of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe came to plead . To him, also, in his capacity of theologian, the whole of Europe submitted every obscure, delicate or controverted question, whether legal problem or See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience . This, undoubtedly, was the part of his task that Innocent preferred, and it was to this, as well as to his much overrated moral and theological treatises, that he owed his enormous contemporary prestige . As a statesman, he certainly committed See also:

• GRAVE

grave faults—through excess of See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic subtlety, lack of forethought, and sometimes even through ingenuousness; but it must with See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice be admitted that, in spite of his reputation for pugnacity and obstinacy, he never failed, either by temperament or on principle, to exhaust every peaceful expedient in settling questions . He was averse from violence, and never resorted to bellicose acts or to the employment of force See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save in the last extremity . If his policy miscarried in several quarters it was eminently successful in others; and if we consider the sum of his efforts to achieve the See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme of the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval papacy, it cannot be denied that the extent of his See also:

• RULE

rule and the profound See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence he exerted on his times entitle him to be regarded as the most perfect type of medieval pope and one of the most powerful figures in See also:

• HISTORY

history . A superficial glance at Innocent's See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence is sufficient to convince us that he was pre-eminently concerned for the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

reformation and moral welfare of the Church, and The See also:

• FOURTH

Fourth was animated by the best intentions for the re-estab- Lateran lishment in the ecclesiastical See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace and See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council, respect for the hierarchy . This was one of the prin-1215 . cipal See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of his activity, and this important side of his See also:

• WORK

work received decisive See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction by the promulgation of the decrees of the fourth Lateran Council (1215) . At this council almost all the questions at issue related to reform, and many give See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of great breadth of mind, as well as of a very acute sense of contemporary necessities .

Innocent's letters, however, not only reveal that See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom which can take into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical needs and relax severity of principle at the right moment, as well as that spirit of tolerance and See also:

• EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity which is opposed to the excess of zeal and intellectual narrowness of subordinates, but they also prove that, in the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal government of the Church, he was See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent on gathering into his hands all the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive threads, and that he stretched the absolutist tradition to its furthest limits, intervening in the most trifling acts in the lives of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, and regarding it as an See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation of his See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act and think for all . The heretic peril, which increased during his pontificate, forced him to take decisive measures against the Albigenses in the south of France, but before proscribing them he spent ten years (1198–1208) in endeavouring to convert the misbelievers, and history should not The forget the pacific See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of these See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early efforts . It Albigensian was because they did not succeed that See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity and See also:

• CRUSADES

crusades the violence of human passions subsequently forced him into a course of See also:

• ACTION

action which he had not chosen and which led him further than he wished to go . When he was compelled to See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree the Albigensian crusade he endeavoured more than once to discontinue the work, which had become perverted, and to curb the crusading ardour of See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon de See also:

• MONTFORT
• MONTFORT, SIMON DE, EARL OF LEICESTER (d. 1265)

Montfort . Failing in his See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to maintain the religious character of the crusade, he wished to prevent it from ending secularly in its extreme consequence and logical outcome . On several occasions he defended the cause of moderation and justice against the fanatical crusaders, but he never had the See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy to make it prevail . It is very doubtful whether this was possible, and an impartial historian must take into account the insuperable difficulties encountered by the medieval popes in their efforts to See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem the See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood of fanaticism . It was more particularly in the definitive constitution of the temporal and political power of the papacy, in the extension of Papal what may be called Roman imperialism, that See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance Imperialism favoured his efforts and enabled him to pursue his under conquests farthest . This imperialism was undoubt-Innecentlll. edly of a See also:

• SPECIAL

special nature; it rested on moral authority and political and See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial power rather than on material and military strength . But it is no less certain that Innocent attempted to subject the kings of Europe by making them his tributaries and vassals . He wished to acquire the mastery of souls by unifying the faith and centralizing the priesthood, but he also aspired to possess temporal supremacy, if not as See also:

• DIRECT

direct owner, at least as suzerain, over all the See also:

• NATIONAL

national crowns, and thus to realize the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea with which he was penetrated and which he himself expressed clearly . He wished to be at once pope and See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and universal sovereign .

And, in fact, he exercised or claimed suzerain rights, together with the political and pecuniary advantages accruing, over the greater number of the See also:

• LAY

lay sovereigns of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . He was more or less effectively the supreme temporal See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia, the states of the Iberian See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula (See also:

• CASTILE, or CASTILLE (Castilla)

Castile, See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon, See also:

• NAVARRE (Span. Navarra)

Navarre and See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal), See also:

• ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon)

Aragon (which, under Peter II., was the type of See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal and tributary kingdom of the Roman power), the Scandinavian states, the kingdom of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, the Slav states of Bohemia, See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, See also:

• SERVIA

Servia, Bosnia and See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria, and the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian states founded in See also:

• SYRIA

Syria by the crusaders of the 12th century . The success of Roman imperialism was particularly remarkable in England, where Innocent was confronted by one of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal potentates of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, by the See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir of the power that had been founded by two statesmen of the first See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William the Conqueror and See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry II . In See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard I. and John he had exceptionally authoritative adversaries; but after one of the fiercest See also:

• WARS

wars ever waged by the See also:

• CIVIL

civil power against the Church, Innocent at length gained over John the most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete victory that has ever been won by a religious potentate over a temporal sovereign, and constrained him to Innocentm. make complete submission . In 1213 the pope and John of became not only the nominal suzerain but, de facto England. and de :lure, the veritable sovereign of England, and during the last years of John and the first years of Henry III. he governed England effectively by his legates . This was the most striking success of Innocent's See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy and the culminating point of his See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular work . The papacy, however, encountered serious obstacles, at first at the very centre of the papal See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, at Rome, where the pope had to contend with the party of communal See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy for ten years before being able to secure the mastery at Rome . His Innocent///., immense authority narrowly escaped destruction Rome and but a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone's-throw from the Lateran See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace; but See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy the victory finally rested with him, since the Roman See also:

• PEOPLE

people could not dispense with the Roman Church, to which it owed its existence . Reared in the nurture of the pope, the populace of the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber renounced its stormy See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty in 1209,and accepted the peace and order that a beneficent See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master gave; but when Innocent attempted to extend to the whole of Italy the regime of paternal subjection that had been so successful at Rome, the difficulties of the enterprise surpassed the powers even of a leader of religion . He succeeded in imposing his will on the nobles and communes in the patrimony of St Peter, and, as See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian of Henry VI.'s son See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick, was for some time able to conduct the government of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, but in his claims on the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Italy the failure of the temporal power was See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest . He was unable, either by diplomacy or force of arms, to make See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian unity redound to the exclusive benefit of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See . Nor was his failure due to lack of activity or energy, but rather to the insuperable obstacles in his path—the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical configuration of Italy, and, above all, the invincible repugnance of the Italian municipalities to submit to the mastery of a religious power .

As far as the Empire was concerned, chance at first favoured Innocent . For ten years a See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany weakened and divided by the rivalry of See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip of See also:

• SWABIA, SUABIA

Swabia and See also:

• OTTO

Otto of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick Innocent III. See also:

• LEFT

left his hands See also:

• FREE

free to act in Italy, and his pontificate and the marks a period of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative quiet in the ardent Empire. conflict between pope and emperor which continued throughout the middle ages . Not until 1210, when Otto of Brunswick turned against the pope to whom he owed his See also:

• CROWN

crown, was Innocent compelled to open hostilities; and the struggle ended in a victory for the Curia . Frederick II., the new emperor created by Innocent, began by handing over his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country to Rome and sacrificing the rights of the Empire to the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the two great authorities of the' Christian See also:

• WORLD

world . In his dealings with Frederick, Innocent experienced grievous vicissitudes and disappointments, but finally became master of the situation . One nation only—the France of Philip See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus—was able to remain outside the Roman vassalage . There is not a word, in the documents concerning the relations of Philip Augustus with Rome, from which we may conclude that the Capetian crown submitted, or that the papacy wished to impose upon it the effective See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of the Holy See . Innocent III. had been able to encroach on France at one point only, when the Albigensian crusade had enabled him to exercise over the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern fiefs conquered by Simon de Montfort a political and secular supremacy in the form of collections of moneys . Finally, Innocent III. was more fortunate than his predecessors, and, if he did not succeed in carrying out his projected crusade and recovering the Holy Places, he at least benefited by the Franco-Venetian expedition of 1202 . Europe refused to take any direct action against the Mussulman, but Latin See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism, Latin See also:

• CON

con. assembled at See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, diverted the crusade by an act quest actin-of formal disobedience, marched on See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, stantinopte. seized thg See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Empire and founded a Latin Empire in its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place; and Innocent had to accept the fait accompli . Though condemning it on principle, he turned it to the interests of the Roman Church as well as of the universal Church . With joy and pride he welcomed the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East into the circle of vassal peoples and kingdoms of Rome See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound politically to the see of St Peter, and with the same emotions beheld the patriarchate of Constantinople at last recognize Roman supremacy .

But from this enormous increase of territory and influence arose a whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of new and difficult problems . The court of Rome had to substitute for the old Greek hierarchy a hierarchy of Latin bishops; to force the remaining Greek clergy to practise the beliefs and See also:

• RITES

rites of the Roman religion and See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow to the supremacy of the pope; to maintain in the See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco-Latin Eastern Church the necessary order, morality and subordination; to defend it against the greed and violence of the nobles and barons who had founded the Latin Empire; and to compel the leaders of the new empire to submit to the apostolic power and execute its commands . In his endeavours to carry out the whole of this programme, Innocent III. met with insuperable obstacles and many disappointments . On the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the Greeks were unwilling to abandon their religion and national cult, and scarcely recognized the ecclesiastical supremacy of the papacy . On the other hand, the upstart Latin emperors, far from proving 698 submissive and humble tools, assumed with the See also:

• PURPLE

purple the habits and pretensions of the sovereigns they had dispossessed . Nevertheless, Innocent left his successors a much Vaster and more See also:

• STABLE

stable political dominion than that which he had received from his predecessors, since it comprised both East and West; and his five immediate successors were able to preserve this ascendancy . They even extended the limits of Roman impetial-1sm by converting the pagans of the Baltic to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, and further reinforced the work of ecclesiastical centralization by enlisting in their service a force which had recently come into existence and was rapidly becoming popular—the mendicant orders, and notably the See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans and See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans . The The Friars Roman power was also increased by the formation and the of the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities—privileged corporations of Universities, masters and students, which escaped the local power of the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop and his See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor only to place themselves under the direction and supervision of the Holy See . See also:

• MISTRESS

Mistress of the entire Christian organism, Rome thus gained See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of inter-national See also:

• EDUCATION

education, and the mendicant monks who formed her devoted See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia lost no time in monopolizing the professorial chairs . Although the ecclesiastical monarchy continued to gain strength, the successors of Innocent III. made less use than he of their immense power . Under See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory IX . (1227—1241) and Innocent IV .

(1243–1254) the conflict between the priesthood and the Empire was revived by the enigmatic Frederick II., the polyglot and lettered emperor, the friend of See also:

• SARACENS

Saracens, the See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

despot who, in youth styled "See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of priests," in later years personified ideas that were directly opposed to the medieval See also:

• THEOCRACY (Gr. Oeoeparia, the rule of God, from Oebr, god, and -Kparca, Kpare v, to rule)

theocracy; and the struggle lasted nearly See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years . The See also:

• HOHENSTAUFEN

Hohenstaufen succumbed to it, and the papacy itself received a terrible See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock, which shook its vast empire to the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations . Nevertheless, the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 13th century may be regarded as the See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch of medieval papal history . Supreme in See also:

• CULMINATION (from Lat. culmen, summit)

culmination Europe, the papacy gathered into a body of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the Papal the decisions given in virtue of its enormous de facto Power. power, and promulgated its collected decrees and maxilla to form the immutable law of the Christian world . Innocent III., Honorius III. and Gregory IX. employed their jurists to collect the most important of their rulings, and Gregory's decrees became the definitive repository of the See also:

• CANON

canon law . Besides making See also:

• LAWS

laws for the Christendom of the See also:

• PRESENT

present and the future, these popes employed themselves in giving a more See also:

• REGULAR

regular form to their principal administrative See also:

• ORGAN

organ, the offices of the Curia . The development of the Roman See also:

• CHANCERY

chancery is also a characteristic sign of the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution that was taking place . From the time of Innocent III. the usages of the apostolic See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes become transformed into precise rules, which for the most part remained in force until the 15th century . 4 . Period. from See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

Urban IV. to See also:

• BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS)
• BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885)

Benedict XI . (1261–1305).—This period comprises 13 pontificates, all of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short duration (three or four years at the most, and some only a few months)., with the exception of that of See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface VIII., who was pope for nine years . This accidental fact constitutes a See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime difference in favour of the preceding period, in which there were only five pontiffs during the first sixty years of the 13th century .

Towards the end of the 13th century the See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors of the Christian world occupied the throne of St Peter for too short a time to be able to make their See also:

• PERSONAL

personal views prevail or to execute their political projects at leisure after ripe meditation . Whatever the merit of a Gregory X. or a See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas III., the brevity of their pontificates prevented any one of these ephemeral sovereigns from being a great pope . But other and far more important See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences characterize this period . Although there was no theoretical restriction to Influence of the temporal supremacy and religious power of the the Power papacy, certain historical facts of great importance of France. contributed to the fatal diminution of their extent . The first of these was the preponderance of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French monarchy and nation in Europe . Founded by the conquests of Philip Augustus and See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis VIII. and legitimated and extended by the policy and moral influence of the crowned See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint, Louis IX., [1087-1305 the French monarchy enjoyed undisputed supremacy at the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th; and this See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony of France was manifested, not only by the extension of the direct power exercised .by the French kings over all the neighbouring nationalities, but also by the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of Capetian dynasties in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and in Hungary . From this time the sovereign of Rome, like other sovereigns, had to submit to French influence . But, whereas the pope was sometimes compelled to become the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of the policy of the kings of France or the adventurers of their See also:

• RACE

race, he was often able to utilize this new and pervading force for the realization of his own designs, although he endeavoured from time to time, but without enduring success, to shake off the overwhelming yoke of the French . In short, it was in the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of French interests much more than in that of the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general interests of Latin Christendom that the activities of these popes were exerted . The fact of many of the popes being of French See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth and France the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of their diplomacy shows that the supreme pontificate was already becoming French in character . This See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was a prelude to the more or less complete subjection of the papacy to French influence which took place in the following century at the period of the " Babylonish Captivity," the violent reaction personified by Boniface VIII. affording but a brief See also:

• RESPITE (O. Fr. respit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at)

respite in this irresistible evolution . It was the French-man Urban IV .

(1261–1264) who called See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles of See also:

• ANJOU

Anjou into Italy to combat the last heirs of Frederick II. and thus paved the way for the establishment of the Angevin See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty on the throne of Naples . Under See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement IV . (1265–1268) an agreement was concluded by which Sicily was handed over to the See also:

• BROTHER

brother of St Louis, and the victories of See also:

• BENEVENTO

Benevento (1266) and Taglia-COZZO (1267) assured the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the See also:

• GUELPH

Guelph party and enabled the Angevins to plant themselves definitely on Neapolitan See also:

• SOIL

soil . See also:

• CONRADIN, or CONRAD THE YOUNGER (1252–1268)

Conradin's tragic and inevitable end closed the last act of the secular struggle between the Holy See and the Empire . Haunted by the recollection of that formidable conflict and lulled in the See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of the Great See also:

• INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign)

Interregnum, which was to render Germany See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long powerless, the papacy thought merely of the support that France could give, and paid no heed to the dangers threatened by the extension of Charles of Anjou's monarchy in central and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Italy . The See also:

• VISCONTI

Visconti Gregory X . (1271–1276) made an attempt to bring about a reaction against the tendency which had influenced his two