BINOCULAR 

INSTRUMENTS The stereoscopic microscope is the most suitable for finding out the space taken up by the separate parts of a preparation . (See also BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS and STEREOSCOPY.) The observer has a stereoscopic impression of an object, when different perspective representations are presented to both eyes, which, through the action of the central nerve system, resolve into one impression . One way of receiving a stereoscopic impression through a micro-scope is by fixing an apparatus as directly as possible above the last lens of the microscopic objective, which divides the rays passing out and directs half into each eyepiece . The half cones of rays have now semicircular sections, the diaphragms having the same form . The cones must be so directed through the divided system that the two exit pupils correspond to the interpupillary distance of the observer . The distance of the centres of the semicircular entrance pupils and their distance from the object regulates the difference of the two perspective representations, which are presented one to the right eye and one to the left . If the perspective centres lie too near one another in the object-space, as may happen with slightly opened and weak systems, the difference of the perspective is then too slight to make any real stereoscopic impression . On the other hand, a very much exaggerated stereoscopic effect can be derived from short focused systems of wide aperture . On account of the slight depth definition, short focused systems of wide aperture are not at all specially suitable for stereoscopic observation, because the possibility of observing objects taking up a good deal of space is too limited when such systems are used . Professor J . L . Riddell (Quart .

Journ . Micros, 1853, p . 236; 1854, pp . 18–24) published an arrangement of prisms, which, however, imparted a pseudomorphous impression if

image-forming oculars were not used, and in 1854 a second system I ! (fig . 48), essentially a Wheatstone pseudoscope, added just above the objective . This gave an orthoscopic image even in ordinary eye-pieces . By adopting right-angled reflection-prisms above the eyepiece he completely erected the image . Stephenson's stereoscopic microscope (fig . 58, Plate) resembles this apparatus in all essentials . A construction of prisms by Nachet is now almost forgotten, while on the contrary an extremely simple dividing prism published by Wenham (Lond . Micros .

Soc., 1861, i . 109) has been exception-ally well attested in practice . It is more easily used than any other apparatus (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS, fig . 8) . A reflec- tion-prism (fig . 49) in a setting is placed above the last surface of the objective and divides the exit rays . The group of rays coming from the left half of the objective can continue its way without hindrance to the right eye . The group of rays coming from the right half of the objective is reflected twice in the prism and directed to the left eye . The tube containing the left eyepiece is a little inclined to-wards the right tube, which is perpendicular . It can be adapted to the interpupillary distance by changing the tube slide . If it is desired to use the instrument as a monocular, the setting with the prism at the lower end of the tube is taken away . A second manner of making stereoscopic observations employs stereoscopic eyepieces .

The first of such eyepieces was proposed by R . B . Tolles.1 He realized that the

division of the cones of rays by prisms could only be satisfactorily performed if the prism was placed in the position of the exit pupil of the objective or in the position of the real image of this exit pupil . He employed a Nachet combination of prisms and placed the dividing prism at the spot where a special reversing system formed a real image of the exit pupil of the objective . A second stereoscopic eyepiece was devised by A . Prazmowski who substituted a Wenham diffracting division prism at the position of the real image of the exit pupil of the objective formed by a reversing system . The newest form of a stereoscopic microscope resembles the oldest in so far as two completely separate microscopes. are used . In the oldest microscope by Cherubin d'Orleans the observer receives a pseudoscopic impression in con-sequence of the reversed image . This defect has been avoided in the instruments constructed in the Zeiss factory (fig . 59, Plate) at the instigation of the American zoologist H . S . Greenough .

The system of Porro prisms employed affords a convenient method of adapting the ends of the eyepieces to the interpupillary distance . The two tubes are inclined to one another at an

angle of about 14° . The microscope is only intended for slight magnifications . The possibility already suggested of using both eyes for observing without having a stereoscopic impression, is often regarded as a great advantage . Binocular microscopes have therefore been constructed on this plan . Such a combination of prisms was used by Wenham, who placed it directly behind the last objective lens . As a rule this arrangement of prisms can be exchanged for the Wenham stereoscopic reflection-prisms . A second kind of dividing prism which directs the entire course of rays to both eyes, and thus produces identical images, was used by Powell and Lealand (fig .. 5o) . Every ray is divided into a re- flected and a refracted portion on the front side of a parallel plate . Whilst the refracted portion after leaving the plate continues its way in the same direction, displaced a little to one side, the reflected portion is directed into the side tube by a reflection- prism . With these microscopes, which are not stereoscopic, objectives of any power can be used .

The surfaces of the dividing prisms must be very exact, so that no deterioration of the image may arise from them . A microscope for two eyes can also be obtained by employing the

Abbe stereoscopic eyepiece . By the supplementary use of one of Wenham's prisms every ray is analysed into a more powerful refracted and a weaker reflected one . The same image can be presented to each eye by using this eyepiece also . No stereoscopic impression is then felt . It is brought about by placing special semicircular dia- phragms in the plane of the exit pupil of the microscope . By 1 R . B . Tolles, Sill . Journ . (1865), xxxix . 212; Journ .

Roy . Micr . Soc . (1890), pt. i. p . 383.turning the diaphragms 18o° round the optical axis, the orthoscopic impression can be changed into the pseudoscopic . The mechanical arrangement of the eyepiece is such that the distance of the two exit pupils can be adjusted to the interpupillary distance .