See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

BIRCH (Betula)  , a genus of See also:

• PLANTS

plants allied to the See also:

• ALDER

alder (Alnus), and like it a member of the natural See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order Betulaceae . The various See also:

• SPECIES

species of,See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch are mostly trees of See also:

• MEDIUM

medium See also:

• SIZE

size, but several of them are merely shrubs . They are as a See also:

• RULE

rule of a very See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, thriving best in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern latitudes—the trees having See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, slender branches, and serrate, See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous leaves, with barren and fertile catkins on the same See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, and winged fruits, the so-called seeds . The bark in most of the trees occurs in See also:

• FINE

fine soft membranous layers, the See also:

• OUTER

outer cuticle of which peels off in thin, See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, papery sheets . The See also:

• COMMON

common white or See also:

• SILVER

silver birch (B. See also:

• ALBA

alba) (see fig.) grows throughout the greater See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and also in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America, reaching in the north to the extreme limits of See also:

• FOREST

forest vege- tation, and stretching southward on the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent as a forest tree to 450 N. See also:

• LAT

lat., beyond which birches occur only in See also:

• SPECIAL

special situations or as isolated trees . It is well known in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England for its graceful See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, the slender, See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey—or white—barked See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem, the delicate, drooping branches and the quivering leaves, a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright, clear See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green in s p r i n g, becoming duller in the summer, but often keeping their greenness rather See also:

• LATE

late into the autumn . The male and See also:

• FEMALE

female See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers are See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne on See also:

• SEPARATE

separate catkins in See also:

• APRIL

April and May . It is a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived tree, generally from 40 to 50 ft . high with a See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk seldom more than 1 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter . It flourishes in See also:

• LIGHT

light soils and is one of the few trees that will grow amongst heather; owing to the large number of " winged seeds " which are readily scattered by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, it spreads rapidly, springing up where the See also:

• SOIL

soil is dry and covering clearings or See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste places . The birch is one of the most wide-spread and generally useful of forest trees of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, occurring in that See also:

• EMPIRE

empire in vast forests, in many instances alone, and in other cases mingled with pines, poplars and other forest trees . The See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood is highly valued by See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage-builders, upholsterers and turners, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its toughness and tenacity, and in Russia it is prized as firewood and a source of See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal .

A very extensive domestic See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry in Russia consists in the manufacture of wooden spoons, which are made to the extent of 30,000,000 annually, mostly of birch . Its pliant and flexible branches are made into brooms; and in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome the See also:

• FASCES

fasces of the Iictors, with which they cleared the way for the magistrates, were made up of birch rods . A similar use of birch rods has continued among pedagogues to times so See also:

• RECENT

recent that the birch is yet, literally or metaphorically, the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of school-See also:

• ROOM

room discipline . The bark of the common birch is much more durable, and industrially of greater From Strasburger, Lehrbuch der Botanik . Betula alba . 1, See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch with male (a) and female (b) inflorescences; 2, bract with three male flowers; 3, bract with three female flowers; 4, infrutescence; 5, See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit . (After Wossidlo.) value, than the wood . It is impermeable to See also:

• WATER

water, and is there-fore used in northern countries for roofing, for domestic utensils, for boxes and jars to contain both solid and liquid substances, and for a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of bark shoes, of which it is estimated 25 millions of pairs are annually worn by the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian peasantry . The jars and boxes of birch bark made by Russian peasants are often stamped with very effective patterns . By dry See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation the bark yields an empyreumatic oil, called diogott in Russia, used in the preparation of Russia See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather; to this oil the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar pleasant odour of the leather is due . The bark itself is used in tanning; and by the Samoiedes and Kamchatkans it is ground up and eaten on account of the starchy See also:

• MATTER

matter it contains . A sugary See also:

• SAP

sap is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the trunk in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring before the opening of the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-buds, and is fermented into a kind of See also:

• BEER

beer and See also:

• VINEGAR

vinegar .

The whole tree, but especially the bark and leaves, has a very pleasant resinous odour, and from the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young leaves and buds an essential oil is distilled with water . The leaves are used as See also:

• FODDER

fodder in northern latitudes . The species which belong peculiarly to America (B. lenta, excelsa, See also:

• NIGRA, COSTANTINO, COUNT (1828-1907)

nigra, papyracea, &c.) are generally similar in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance and properties to B. alba, and have the same range of applications . The largest and most valuable is the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black birch (B. lenta) found abundantly over an extensive See also:

• AREA

area in See also:

• BRITISH

British North America, growing 6o to 70 ft. high and 2 to 3 ft. in diameter . It is a wood most extensively used for See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture and for carriage-See also:

• BUILDING

building, being tough in texture and bearing shocks well, while much of it has a handsome See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain and it is susceptible of a fine See also:

• POLISH

polish . The bark, which is dark See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown or reddish, and very durable, is used by See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians and backwoodsmen in the same way as the bark of B. alba is used in northern Europe . The See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe or See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper birch (B. papyracea) is found as far north as 70° N. on the See also:

• AMERICAN

American continent, but it becomes rare and stunted in the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic circle . See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Sprague See also:

• SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856– )

Sargent says: " It is one of the most widely distributed trees of North America . From Labrador it ranges to the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern shores of See also:

• HUDSON
• HUDSON, GEORGE (180o-1871)
• HUDSON, HENRY
• HUDSON, JOHN (1662–1719)

Hudson's See also:

• BAY

Bay and to those of the See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

Bear See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake, and to the valley of the See also:

• YUKON

Yukon and the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska, forming with the See also:

• ASPEN

aspen, the See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch, the See also:

• BALSAM (from Gr. f &X raµov, through Lat. balsamum, contracted by popular use to O. Fr. basme, mod. Fr. bdme; Eng. balm)

balsam See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, the banksian See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine, the black and white spruces and the balsam See also:

• FIR

fir, the great subarctic transcontinental forest; and southward it ranges through all the forest region of the Dominion of See also:

• CANADA

Canada and the northern states." It is a tree of the greatest value to the inhabitants of the See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Mackenzie See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• DISTRICT

district in British North America . Its bark is used for the construction of canoes, and for drinking-cups, dishes and baskets . From the wood, platters, See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe-handles, See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe frames, and See also:

• DOG

dog sledges are made, and it is worked into articles of furniture which are susceptible of a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good polish . The sap which flows in the spring is drawn off and boiled down to an agreeable spirit, or fermented with a birch-See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine of consider-able alcoholic strength .

The bark is also used as a substitute for paper . A species (B . Bhojputtra) growing on the Himalayan Mountains, as high up as 9000 ft., yields large quantities of fine thin papery bark, extensively sent down to the plains as a substitute for wrapping paper, for covering the " See also:

• SNAKES

snakes " of hookahs and for umbrellas . It is also said to be used as See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing paper by the mountaineers; and in See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir it is in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use for roofing houses .