BIRD  , the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• ENGLISH

English name for feathered vertebrates, members of the class Aves . The word in Old Eng. is brid and in See also:

• MID

Mid . Eng. See also:

• BYRD, WILLIAM (1543-1623)

byrd or bryd, and in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early uses meant the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young or nestlings only . It is partly due to this early meaning that the derivation from the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of " brood " has been usually accepted; this the New English See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary regards as " inadmissible." The word does not occur in any other See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . As a generic name for the feathered vertebrates " bird " has replaced the older " See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl," a common Teutonic word, appearing in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German as See also:

• VOGEL, EDUARD (1829-1856)
• VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899)

Vogel . " Bird," when it passed from its earliest meaning of " nestlings," seems to have been applied to the smaller, and " fowl to the larger See also:

• SPECIES

species, a distinction which was retained by See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson . In See also:

• MODERN

modern usage " fowl," except in " See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild-fowl " or " See also:

• WATER

water-fowl," is confined to domestic poultry . The See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of the anatomical See also:

• PART

part of the following See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the structure of birds (Aves) in so far as they, as a class, differ from other vertebrates, notably See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles and mammals, whilst features especially characteristic, See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar or unique, have been dwelt upon at greater length so far as space permitted . References to See also:

• ORIGINAL

original papers indicate further See also:

• SOURCES

sources of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . For a comprehensive account the reader may be referred to Prof . M . Furbringer's enormous See also:

• WORK

work Untersuchungen zur Morphologic and Systematik der Vogel, 4to., 2 vols .

(1888); H . G . See also:

• BRONN, HEINRICH GEORG (1800-1862)

Bronn's Klassen and Ordnungen See also:

• DES

des Thierreichs, vol. vi., " Ayes," See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, completed 1893 by Gadow; and A . See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton's Dictionary of Birds, See also:

• LONDON

London, 1896 . For the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of birds see the article See also:

• ORNITHOLOGY

ORNITHOLOGY, where also the more important ornithological See also:

• WORKS

works are mentioned . See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

EGG, See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

FEATHER (including See also:

• MOULT

Moult), See also:

• MIGRATION

MIGRATION, &c., also See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form See also:

• SEPARATE

separate articles to which reference should be made . In this article (A) the general See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of birds is discussed, (B) fossil birds, (c) the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of birds, (n) the latest classification of birds . A . ANATOMY OF BIRDS 1 . See also:

• SKELETON

Skeleton . •See also:

• SKULL

Skull.—When W . K .

See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker wrote the account of the skull in the article BIRDS for the 9th edition of the See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Encyclopaedia Britannica, he had still to wrestle with the general problem of the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the skull . That See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomy (together with other anatomical details, for which see the separate articles) is now dealt with in the article SKULL; here only the most avine features are alluded to, and since some of Parker's original illustrations have been retained, the description has been shortened considerably . One general feature of the adult bird's skull is the almost See also:

• COMPLETE

complete disappearance of the sutures between the bones of the cranium proper, whilst another is the See also:

• GREAT

great movability of the whole palatal and other suspensorial apparatus . The occipital condyle (fig . 1) is a single knob, being formed almost wholly by the basi-occipital, while the lateral occipitals (often perversely called exoccipitals) take but little See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in it . Part of the membranous roof between the supra-occipital and parietal bones frequently remains unossified and presents in the macerated skull a pair of fontanelles . The squamosals form the posterior See also:

• OUTER

outer margin of the orbits and are frequently continued into two lateral downward processes across the temporal fossa . One of these, the processus orbitatis posterior, often combines with an outgrowth of the alisphenoid, and may be, e.g. in cockatoos, continued forwards to the lacrymal See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone, so as to form a complete infraorbital See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge . The posterior, so-called processus See also:

• ZYGOMATICUS

Zygomaticus is very variable; in many Galli it encloses a foramen by distally joining the orbital See also:

• PROCESS

process . The ethmoid frequently appears on the dorsal See also:

• SURFACE

surface between the frontals . There are three periotic bones (See also:

• PRO

pro-, epi-, opisth-otic) . The prootic encloses between it and the lateral occipital the fenestra ovalis, into which fits the See also:

• COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS

columella of the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear .

The epiotic is often small, ossifies irregularly, and fuses with.the supra-occipital . The opisthotic lies between the epiotic and the lateral occipital with which it ultimately fuses; in some birds, e.g. in Larus, it extends far enough to help to See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound the foramen magnum . The basisphenoids are ventrally overlaid, and bo, Basi-occipital . bt, Basi-temporal . eo, Opisthotic . f, Frontal . fm, Foramen magnum. fo, Fontanella . oc, Occipital condyle. op, Opisthotic . p, Parietal . pf, See also:

• POST

Post-frontal . sc, Sinus See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal in supra-occipital bo as so, Supra-occipital. sq, Squamosal . 8, Exit of vagus See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve .

later on fused with, a pair of membrane bones, the basi-temporals, homologous in part with the parasphenoid of See also:

• LOWER

lower vertebrates . They contribute to the formation of the auditory meatus, and of the right and See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• CAROTID

carotid canals which accompany the eustachian tubes . as, Alisphenoid . bo, Basi-occipital . bt, Basi-temporal . dpx, Dentary process of pre- maxilla. eo, Opisthotic . eu, Eustachian See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube . f, Frontal . fm, Foramen magnum . j, Jugal . 1, Lacrymal mx, Maxilla . mxp, Maxillo-See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine process. oc, Occipital condyle .

pa, Palatine . In many birds the basisphenoids send out a pair of basipterygoid processes by which they articulate with the pterygoids . Dorsolaterally the basisphenoid is joined by the alisphenoid, which forms most of the posterior See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of the See also:

• ORBIT (from Lat. orbita, a track, orbis, a wheel)

orbit . The orbito-sphenoids diverge only posteriorly, otherwise they are practically unpaired and form the median interorbital septum, which is very large in correlation with the extraordinary See also:

• SIZE

size of the eyeballs . Prefrontal bones are absent; post-frontals are possibly indicated by a frequently occurring separate centre of ossification in the post-orbital process, to which the frontals always contribute . The lacrymal is always See also:

• PRESENT

present, and perforated by a glandular duct . Attached to it or the neighbouring frontal is often a supraorbital; infraorbitals occur also, attached to the jugal or downward process of the lacrymal . The nasals were used by A . H . Garrod to distinguish the birds as holorhinal (fig . 2) where the anterior margin of the nasal is See also:

• CONCAVE

concave, and schizorhinal where this posterior border of the outer See also:

• NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831– )

nares is continued backwards into a slit which extends beyond the frontal processes of the pre-maxilla . Many birds possess a more or less well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed See also:

• CROSS

cross-See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint in front of the frontals and lacrymals, perhaps best developed in Anseres and Psittaci .

Owing to this joint the whole upper See also:

• BEAK (early forms beke and becke, from Fr. bec, late Lat. beccus, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic bec and beq, however, are taken from the English)

beak can be moved up and down with extra facility, according to the shoving forwards or backwards of the palato-pterygo-quadrate apparatus which moves sledge - like upon the See also:

• CRANIAL

cranial basis . The premaxilla is always unpaired, but each See also:

• HALF

half has three See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long processes directed backwards; one fuses with the maxillary. bone, an-other See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps to form the anterior part of the See also:

• PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere, to feed)

palate, while the third, together with its See also:

• FELLOW

fellow, forms the culmen " and ex-tends backwards to tht frontals, or rather to the ethmoid which there crops up, on the surface . The maxillaries (fig . 3) have besides others, a maxillo-palatine pro eth,Ethmoid. See also:

• CESS (a shortened form of " assess "; the spelling is due to a mistaken connexion with " census ")

cess directed inwards f . Frontal. in a transverse hori- j, Jugal . zontal direction . The 1, Lacrymal. palatines are long, n . Nostril . always fused an- np, Upper process of teriorly with the nasal. premaxilla, and fre- quently with the maxillo-palatine processes; posteriorly they slide upon the presphenoidal rostrum, and articulate in most birds with the pterygoids; they form the greater part of the palatal roof and border the choanae or inner pares . Between these, resting vertically upon the rostrum, appears the vomer; very variable in shape and size, often reduced to a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere trace, as in the Galli, or even absent, broken up into a pair of tiny splints in Pici . The taxonomic importance of the configurations of the palate was first pointed out by J. de Cornay . T .

H . See also:

• HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895)

Huxley, in 1868, divided the carinate birds into Dromaeo-, Schizo-, Desmo-, and Aegithognathae, an arrangement which for many years had a considerable See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon classification . However, subsequent additions and corrections have detracted much from its value, especially when it became understood that the above sub-orders are by no means natural See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . Dromaeognathae have a struthious palate, with a broad vomer See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting in front the broad maxillo-palatal plates, while behind it reaches the pterygoids . The only representatives are the Tinamous . Schizognathae, e.g. fowls (fig . 4), pigeons, gulls, plovers, rails and penguins, have the vomer pointed in front while the maxillo-palatines are See also:

• FREE

free, leaving a fissure between the vomer and themselves . The schizognathous formation is doubtless the most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, and its representatives form a tolerably natural .9 J; / ac . ./"r' pf, Post-frontal . pg, Pterygoid . pri, Prenasal See also:

• CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilage, gristle)

cartilage . ppx, Palatine process of pre-maxillary .

prp, Pterygoid process of sphenoid . qj, Quadratojugal . so, Supra-occipital . sq, Squamosal . ty, Tympanic cavity . v, Vomer . 8, Exit of vagus nerve . 9, Exit of hypoglossal nerve . Sv eo, Lateral occipital. npx, Nasal process of premaxillary. p, Parietal . pf, Post-frontal. px, Premaxilla . qj, Quadratojugal. so, Supra-occipital sq, Squamosal . ANATOMY] See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly .

Desmognathae (fig . 5) were supposed to have the maxillopalatines See also:

• UNITED

united across the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• LINE

line, either directly or by the inter- adult Fowl . This skull is unusually schizognathous, the vomer (v.) being very small, and the maxillo-palatine process (mxp) much aborted . bo, Basi-occipital. bt, Basi-temporal . eo, Lateral occi- pital . eu, Eustachian tube . ic, See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal carotid. j, Jugal . 1, Lacrymal . mx, Maxilla . mxp, Maxillo-pala- tine process . oc, Occipital See also:

• CON

con-P~ dyle . pa, Palatine .

pf, Post-frontal . pg, Pterygoid . prp, Pterygoid pro- cess of sphenoid. e .0 px, Premaxilla . rP q, Quadrate, rbs, Quadratojugal . osRostrum of $ basi-sphenoid . so, Supra-occipital. bo. v, Vomer . oc . 8, Exit of vagus nerve . 9, Exit of hypo- glossal nerve . (After W . K . Parker.) See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of ossifications in the nasal septum .

This is a hopeless assembly . Parker and Furbringer have demonstrated that desmo- nestling Sparrowhawk(Accipiter See also:

• NISUS

nisus), palatal view . The circular space on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the basi-temporal (bt.) is the opening of the anterior tympanic See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess . The basi-pterygoids (bpg) are mere knobs, and the common eustachian opening is seen between them . The maxillo- palatine plates (mxp) are dotted to show their mpg. spongy See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . 12.7' bt Basi-temporal . bpg, Basi-pterygoid . eo, Lateral occipital. p~ f, Frontal . fm, Foramen magnum . Q j, Jugal . 1, acrymal . See also:

• ELY
• ELY, RICHARD THEODORE (1854— )

Ely mpg,Mesopterygoid process of W .

K . Parker . 8 mx, Maxillary . mxp, Maxillo-palatine process . op, Opisthotic . pa, Palatine . pg, Pterygoid . px, Premaxilla. sn, Nasal septum . 8, Exit of vagus No, Prootic. so, Supra-occipital. nerve . q, Quadrate. ty, Tympanic cavity . 9, Exit of hypo- qj, Quadratojugal. v, Vomer. glossal nerve . (After W .

K . Parker.) gnathism has been produced in half a dozen ways, implying numerous cases of convergence without any nearer relationship than that they 961 are all derived from some schizognathous See also:

• GROUP

group or other . The Aegithognathae, meant to comprise the passeres, woodpeckers and swifts, &c., are really schizognathous but with a vomer which is broadly truncated in front . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the appendicular skeleton (fig . 6) of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head requires little description . The maxillaries are connected with the distal anterior corner of the quadrate by the thin, splint-like jugal and quadratojugal . The quadrate is invariably a conspicuous bone and movably articulating with the cranium and by a See also:

• SPECIAL

special process with the pterygoid . The mandible is composed of several bones as in reptiles . The os articulare bears on its inner side the inner mandibular process which serves for the insertion of part of the digastric muscle or opener of the mouth; another portion of this muscle is attached to the os angulare, which frequently forms a pa, Palatine . pap,Posterior angular process of mandible . pe, Ethmoid . pf, Post-frontal .

pg, Pterygoid . ps, Pre-sphenoid . px, Premaxilla . q, Quadrate . qj, Quadratojugal . sa, Supra-angular or coronoid. so, Supra-occipital . sq, Squamosal . ty, Tympanic cavity . v, Vomer . I, Exit of olfactory nerve . posterior mandibular process . The greater part of the under-See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw is formed by the right and left dentarie§, which in all See also:

• RECENT

recent birds are fused together in front .

Supra-angular and coronoid splint-bones serve for the insertion of part of the temporal or masseter muscle . Additional splints See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on the inner side of the jaw . Like the crocodiles, birds possess a siphonium, i.e. a membranous, or ossified, tube which rises from a pneumatic foramen in the os articulare, on the median side of the See also:

• ARTICULATION (from Lat. articulare, to divide into joints)

articulation, and passes upwards between the quadrate and lateral occipital bone, opening into the cavity of the middle ear . The Hyoid apparatus is, in its detail, subject to many See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with the very diverse uses to which the See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of birds is rbs a, Angular of mandible . ar, Articular . bt, Basi-temporal . d, Dentary . eo, Lateral occipital . eth, Ethmoid. f, Frontal . See also:

• LAP

lap, Interangular process of mandible . ios, Interorbital septum . j, Jugal .

1, Lacrymal. mx, Maxillary n, Nasal . os, Orbito-sphenoid . p, Parietal . II put . It consists of (1) the basihyal variously called copula, or corpus linguae, or unpaired middle portion . (2) The urohyal like- See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise unpaired, rested ventrally on the larynx . (3) The os ento- glossum originally paired, but coalescing into an arrow-headed piece, attached to the anterior end of the basihyal and lodged in the tongue proper . It is homologous with the distal ends of the ceratohyals or ventral elements of the hyoidean or second visceral See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch . The dorsal or hyomandibular portion of this same arch is transformed into the auditory See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, ending in the fenestra See also:

• OXALIS

oxalis, (4) A pair of thyrohyals, homologous with the posterior hyoid horns of mammals, i.e. third visceral or first branchial arch . As the most developed pair in birds they are commonly, although wrongly, called the hyoid horns . They articulate upon facets of the hinder outer corners of the basihyal . The vertebrae are stereospondylous, the centrum or See also:

• BODY

body and the arch being com- pletely fused into one See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, leaving not even a neuro-central suture .

The arch alone sends bbr out processes, viz. the spinous process, the anterior and posterior oblique (commonly called pre- and post-zygapophyses), and the transverse processes . The latter articulate with the tuberculum of the corresponding See also:

• RIB (from 0. Eng. ribb; the word appears' in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Rippe, Swed. reb)

rib, while the capitulum articulates by a knob on the side of the anterior end of the centrum . In the cervical region the ribs are much reduced, fused with their vertebrae and enclosing the transverse canal or foramen . When the vertebrae are free their centra articulate with each other by complicated See also:

• JOINTS

joints, exhibiting four types . (I) Amphicoelous; each end of the centrum is concave; this, the lowest See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, is embryonic, but wlas retained in See also:

• ARCHAEOPTERYX

Archaeopteryx and in the thoracic vertebrae of Ichthyornis . (2) Procoelous, concave in front; only in the See also:

• ATLAS

atlas, for the reception of the occipital condyle . (3) Opisthocoelous, or concave behind, only occasionally found in the thoracic region, e.g . Sphenisci . (4) Heterocoelous (fig . 8) or See also:

• SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives

saddle-shaped; the anterior surface is concave in a transverse, but See also:

• CONVEX

convex in a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical direction, which on posterior surface shows the conditions re-versed . This is the most perfect arrangement attained by the vertebral See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, and is typical of, and restricted to, birds . The inter-vertebral joints are further complicated by the interposition of a cartilaginous or fibrous See also:

• PAD

pad or See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring .

This pad varies much; it is morphologically the homologue of the pair of basiventral elements which by their lateral See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension give origin to the corresponding ribs . Later those pads fuse with the anterior end of the centrum of the vertebra to which they belong; where the vertebral column is rendered inflexible, the disks are ossified with the centra and all trace of them is lost . Sometimes the pad is reduced to a ventral semi-ring or meniscus; it retains its largest almost original shape and size in the second vertebra, the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis or epistropheus, where it forms a separately ossifying piece which connects, and coossifies with, the odontoid process (the centrum of the atlas) and the centrum of the second vertebra . Sometimes the ventral portions of these pads form paired or unpaired little ossifications, then generally described as intercentra; such are not uncommon on the tail . The atlas is composed of three pieces; a pair of lateral ele- Pt-zty ments (the right and left dorsal arch pieces) joining above the See also:

• SPINAL

spinal See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord, and a ventral piece See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the first basiventral elements, i.e. serially homologous with the intervertebral pads . In the adults the atlas forms a more or less solid ring . A remnant of the chorda dorsalis and its sheath persists as the ligamentum suspensorium between the central portions of the successive vertebrae . In birds we distinguish between the following regions of the axial skeleton . (I) Cervical vertebrae, or those between the skull and the first vertebra which is connected with the sternum by a pair of complete ribs . The last I to 5 of these vertebrae have movable ribs which do not reach the sternum, and are called cervico-dorsals . (2) Dorsals, those which begin with the first thoracic rib, and end at the last that is not fused with the ilium . The See also:

• TERM

term " lumbar " vertebrae is inapplicable to birds .

(3) Pelvic, all those which are fused with the iliac portion of the See also:

• PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. 7rEX?a )

pelvis, generally a considerable number . (4) Caudal, those which are not connected with the pelvis . It is to be noted that often no See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute line of demarcation can be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn in regard to these regions, their See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions being rather convenient than morphological . In comparison with all other vertebrates the number of See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck-vertebrae of the birds is considerably increased; the lowest number, 14 to 15, is that of most Passeres and many other Coraciomorphae; the largest See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, 20 or 21, are found in the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich, 23 in See also:

• CYGNUS (" The Swan ")

Cygnus olor and 25 in the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

swan . Dorsal vertebrae frequently have a ventral outgrowth of the centrum; these hypapophyses may be See also:

• SIMPLE

simple vertical See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades, .[,-shaped, or paired knobs; they serve for the See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment of the thoracic origin of the See also:

• LONGUS

longus collianticus muscle, reaching their greatest development in Sphenisci and Colymbidae . In many birds some of the thoracic vertebrae are more or less coossified, in most pigeons for instance the 15th to 17th; in most Galli the last cervical and the next three or four thoracics are coalesced, &c . The pelvic vertebrae include of course the sacrum . There are only two or three vertebrae which are equivalent to those of the reptiles; these true sacrals are situated in a level just behind the See also:

• ACETABULUM

acetabulum; as a See also:

• RULE

rule between these two See also:

• PRIMARY

primary sacral vertebrae issues the last of the spinal nerves which con-tributes to the composition of the sciadic plexus . These true sacrals alone are connected with the ilium by processes which are really equivalent to modified ribs; but the pelvis of birds extends considerably farther forwards and backwards, gradually coming into contact with other vertebrae, which in various ways send out connecting transverse processes or buttresses, and thus become pre- and post-sacral vertebrae (fig . 9) . The most anterior part of the ilium often, overlaps one or more See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short lumbar ribs and fuses with them, or even a long, complete thoracic rib . Similarly during the growth of the bird the posterior end of the ilium connects itself with the transverse processes of vertebrae which were originally free, thus transforming them from caudals into secondary post-sacrals .

Individual, specific and generic variations are frequent . The last six or seven caudal vertebrae coalesce into the pygostyle, an upright blade which carries the rectrices . Such a pygostyle is absent in Archaeopteryx, Hesperornis, Tinami and See also:

• RATITAE (from Lat. ratis, a raft)

Ratitae, but it occurs individually in old specimens of the ostrich and the See also:

• KIWI

kiwi . In Ichthyornis it is very small . In all the Neornithes the See also:

• TOTAL

total number of caudal vertebrae, inclusive of those which coalesce, is reduced to at least 13 . Sternum (See also:

• FIGS

figs . 10 and 11).—Characteristic features of the sternum are the following . There is a well-marked processus lateralis anterior (the right and left together equivalent to the mammalian manubrium), which is the product of two or three ribs, the dorsal parts of which reduced ribs remain as cervico-dorsal ribs . Then follows the rib-bearing portion and then the processus lateralis posterior; FIG. lo.—A side view of this also is the product of ribs, con- the Chick's sternum. sequently the right and left processes together are equivalent to the xiphoid process or xiphisternum of the mammals . The lateral process in most birds sends out an outgrowth, directed out and upwards, overlapping some of the ribs, the processus obliquus . The median and posterior extension of the body of the sternum is a See also:

• DIRECT

direct outgrowth of the latter, therefore c.h, Ceratohyals (con-fluent) . b.h, The so-called basihyal, answering to the first basibranchial of a See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish .

b.br, Basi-branchial, or urohyal, answering to the rest of the basibranchial See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . c.br, e.br, together form the thyrohyal, answering to the first cerato- and epibranchials . called See also:

• META

meta-sternum . The anterior margin of the sternum, between the right and left anterior lateral processes receives in sockets the feet of the coracoids . Between them arises a median See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest, which varies much in extent and composition, and is of considerable taxonomic value . It is represented either by a See also:

• SPINA (Lat. for a thorn, or prickle, also backbone, whence spine)

spina interna or by a spina externa, or by both, or they join to form a spina communis which is often very large and some-times ends in a bifurcation . Eventually, when the right and left feet of the coracoids overlap each other, the anterior sternal spine contains a foramen . The See also:

• KEEL

keel, or carina sterni, is formed as a direct cartilaginous out-growth of the body of the sternum, ossifying from a special centre . This keel is much reduced in the FIG . 11.—Sternum of a Chick (See also:

• GALLUS, C
• GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.)
• GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS

Gallus domes- N e w Z e a l a n d ticus) three days old, lower view . The cartilage See also:

• PARROT (according to Skeat, from Fr. Perrot or Pies-rot, the diminutive of the proper name Pierrel)

Parrot, Stringops, is shaded and dotted, and the bony centers are less in various See also:

• LIGHT

light and striated. flightless rails, in the See also:

• DODO (from the PortugueseDhudo, a simpleton)

dodo and See also:

• SOLI
• SOLI (mod. Mezetlii)

soli- taire . It is absent in the Ratitae, which from this feature have received their name, but considerable traces of a cartilaginous keel occur in the embryo of the ostrich, showing undeniably that the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a keel in the recent bird is not a primitive, fundamental feature .

The keel has been lost, and is being lost, at various epochs and by various groups of birds . The See also:

• SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being common in Teutonic languages)

swimming Hesperornis (see See also:

• ODONTORNITHES

ODONTORNITHES) was also devoid of such a structure . In many birds the spaces between the metasternum and the posterior processes and again the spaces between this and the oblique process are filled up by proceeding ossification and either remain as notches, or as fenestrae, or they are completely abolished so that the breastbone is turned into one solid more or less oblong See also:

• PLATE

plate . See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

Shoulder See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

Girdle.—Scapula, coracoid and clavicle, meet to form the foramen triosseum, through which passes the tendon of the supracoracoideus, o, subclavius muscle to the tuberculum superius of the humerus . The coracoid is one of the most characteristic bones of the bird's skeleton . Its upper end forms the acrocoracoid process, against the inner surface of which leans the proximal portion of the clavicle . From the inner side of the neck of the coracoid arises the precoracoidal process, the remnant of the precoracoid . Only in the ostrich this See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element is almost typically complete, although soon fused at either end with the coracoid . Near the See also:

• BASE

base of the precoracoidal process is a small foramen for the passage of the nervus supracoracoideus . In most birds the feet of the coracoids do not See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch each other; in some groups they meet, in others one overlaps the other, the right lying ventrally upon the left . The scapula is sabre-shaped, and extends backwards over the ribs, lying almost parallel to the vertebral column . This is .a peculiar character of all birds .

The clavicles, when united, as usual, form the furcula; mostly the distal median portion is drawn out into a hypocleidium of various shape . Often it reaches the keel of the sternum, with subsequent syndesmosis or even synostosis, e.g. in the See also:

• GANNET (O.E. gavot)

gannet . In birds of various groups the clavicles are more or less degenerated, the reduction beginning at the distal end . This condition occurs in the Ratitae as well as in the well-flying Platyrcecinae amongst parrots . The fore-See also:

• LIMB

limb or wing (fig . 12) ; highly specialized for See also:

• FLIGHT

flight, which, initiated and made possible mainly by the strong development of See also:

• QUILL

quill-feathers, has turned the wing into a unique See also:

• ORGAN

organ . The humerus with its crests, ridges and processes, presents so many modifications characteristic of the various groups of birds, that its con-figuration alone is not only of considerable taxonomic value but that almost any genus, excepting, of course, those of Passeres, can be " spotted " by a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close examination and comparison of this bone . When the wing is folded the long glenoid surface of the head of the humerus is bordered above by the tuberculum externum or superius, in the middle and below by the tuberculum See also:

• MEDIUM

medium or inferius for the insertion of the coraco-brachialis posterior muscle . From the outer tuberculum extends the large crista See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior (insertion of See also:

• PECTORALIS

pectoralis See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major and of deltoideus major muscles) . The ventral portion of the neck is formed by the strong crista inferior, on the median side of which is the deep fossa subtrochanterica by which See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air sacs enter the humerus . On the outer side of the humerus between the head and the crista inferior is a groove lodging one of the coraco-humeral ligaments . The distal end of the humerus ends in a trochlea, witha larger knob for the ulna and a smaller See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval knob foi the See also:

• RADIUS

radius .

Above this knob is often present an ectepicondylar process whence arise the tendons of the ulnar and radial flexors . The radius is the straighter and more slender of the two forearm bones . Its proximal end forms a shallow See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup for articulation with the outer condyle of the humerus; the distal end bears a knob which fits into the radial carpal . The ulna is curved and rather stout; it articulates with both carpal bones; the cubital quills often cause rugosities on its dorsal surface . Of See also:

• WRIST

wrist-bones only two remain in the adult bird; the original distal carpals coalesce with the proximal end of the meta-carpals . These are reduced, in all birds, to three, but traces of the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth have been observed in embryos . The first metacarpal is short and fuses throughout its length with the second . This and the third are much longer and fuse together at their upper and distal ends, leaving as a rule a space between the shafts . The pollex and the third See also:

• FINGER

finger are as a rule reduced to one See also:

• PHALANX (Gr. /&Xa'y, , of unknown origin)

phalanx each, while the See also:

• INDEX

index still has two . The first and second fingers frequently carry a little claw . The greatest reduction of the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-skeleton is met with in Dromaeus and in A pteryx, which retain only the index finger . It is of importance for our understanding of the position of the Ratitae in the See also:

• SYSTEM

system, that the wing-skeleton of the ostrich and See also:

• RHEA

rhea is an exact repetition of that of typical flying birds; the bones are much more slender, and the muscles are considerably reduced in strength also to a lesser extent in numbers, but the total length of the wing of an ostrich or a rhea is actually and comparatively enormous .

Starting with the kiwi and See also:

• CASSOWARY (Casuarius)

cassowary, See also:

• PEOPLE

people have got into the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of confounding flightless with wingless conditions . It is absolutely certain that the wings of the Ratitae See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the strongest testimony that they are the descendants of typical flying birds . h, Humerus . r, Radius . u, Ulnar . r', u', Radial and ulnar carpal bones; with the three digits I., II., III . The pelvis (fig . 13), consisting of the sacrum (already described) and the pelvic arch, namely ilium, ischium and pubis, it follows that only birds and mammals possess a pelvis proper, whilst such is entirely absent in the See also:

• AMPHIBIA

Amphibia and in reptiles with the exception, of some of the Dinosaurs . The ventral inner margin of the preacetabular portion of the ilium is attached to the pre-sacral vertebrae, whilst the inner and dorsal margin of the postacetabular portion is attached to the primary sacral and the postsacral vertebrae . In rare cases the right and left preacetabular blades fuse with each other above the spinous processes . In front of the acetabulum a thick process of the ilium descends to meet the pubis, and a similar process behind meets the ischium . The acetabulum is completely surrounded by these three bones, but its cup always retains an open foramen; from its posterior rim arises the strong antitrochanter .

The ischium and postacetabular ilium originally enclose the ischiadic notch or incisura ischiadica . This primitive condition occurs only in the Odontornithes (q.v.), Ratitae and Tinami; in all others this notch becomes converted into a foramen ischiadicum, through which pass the big stems of the ischiadic nerves and most of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood-vessels of the See also:

• HIND

hind-limb . The pubis consists of a short anterior portion (spina pubica or pectineal process, homologous with the prepubic process of Dinosaurs) and the long and slender pubis proper (equivalent to the processus lateralis pubis of most reptiles) . The See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft of the pubis runs parallel with that of the ischium, with which it is connected by a short ligamentous or bony bridge; this cuts off from the long incisura pubo-ischiadica a proximal portion, the foramen obturatum, for the passage of the obturator nerve . Only in the ostrich the distal ends of the pubes meet, forming a See also:

• DAGGER

dagger-shaped symphysis, which is curved forwards . The pectineal process is variable; it may grow entirely from the pubis, or both pubis and ilium partake of its formation, or lastly its pubic portion may be lost and the process is entirely formed by the ilium . It is largest in the Galli and some of the Cuculi, in others it is hardly indicated . It served originally for the origin of the ambiens muscle (see See also:

• MUSCULAR

Muscular System below) ; shifting or disappearance of this muscle., of course, influences the process . The Hind Limb.—The femur often possesses a well visible pneumatic foramen on the median side of the proximal end of its shaft . The inner condyle, the intercondylar sulcus, and a portion only of its outer condyle, articulate with corresponding facets of the See also:

• TIBIA

tibia . The outer condyle articulates mainly with the fibula . There is a patella, intercalated in the tendon of the femori-tibialis or extensor cruris muscle .

In Colymbus the patella is reduced to a small ossicle, its See also:

• FUNCTION

function being taken by the greatly developedpyramidalprocessus tibialis anterior; in Podiceps and Hesperornis the patella itself is large and pyramidal . The distal half of the fibula is very slender and normally does not reach the See also:

• ANKLE

ankle-joint; it is attached to the peroneal See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the tibia . On the anterior side of the tibia, is the intercondylar sulcus, which is crossed by an oblique bridge of tendon or bone, acting as a See also:

• PULLEY

pulley for the tendon of the extensor digitorum communis muscle . The condyles of the tibia are in reality not parts of this bone, but are the three proximal tarsalia which fuse together and with the distal end of the tibia . The distal tarsalia likewise fuse together, and then on to the upper ends of the metatarsals; the tarsale centrale remain; sometimes as a separate osseous nodule, buried in the inter-articular pad . Consequently the ankle-joint of birds is absolutely cruro-tarsal and tarso-metatarsal, i.e. intertarsal, an arrangement absolutely diagnostic of birds if it did not also occur in some of the Dinosaurs . Of the metatarsals the fifth occurs as an embryonic vestige near the joint; the first is reduced to its distal portion, and is, with the hallux, shoved on to the inner and posterior side of the See also:

• FOOT

foot, at least in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of birds . The three middle metatarsals become fused together into a See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon bone; the upper part of the third middle metatarsal projects behind and formsthe so-called hypotarsus, which in various ways, characteristic of the different groups of birds (with one or more See also:

• SULCI

sulci, grooved or perforated), acts as guiding pulley to the tendons of the flexor muscles of the toes . Normally the four toes have two, three, four and five phalanges respectively, but in Cypselus the number is reduced to three in the front toes . Reduction of the number of toes (the fifth shows no traces whatever, not even in Archaeopteryx) begins with the hallux, which is completely or partly absent in many birds ; the second toe is absent in Struthio only . The short feet of the penguins are quite plantigrade, in See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to which habit the metatarsals See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in one See also:

• PLANE

plane and are incompletely co-ossified, thus presenting a pseudo-primitive condition . M .

E . Alix Essai sur l'appareil locomoteur des oiseaux (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1874) ; E . See also:

• BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845)

Blanchard, " Recherches sur See also:

• LES

les caracteres osteologiques des oiseaux appliquees a la classification," See also:

• ANN

Ann . Sci . Nat . See also:

• SER

Ser. iv., t. xi.; W . Dames, ` Ober Brustbein Schulter- and Beckengurtel der Archaeopteryx," Math . Naturw . Mitch., See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, vii., 1897, pp . 476-492; T . C . Eyton, Osteologia avium (London, 1858-1881), with many plates; C .

See also:

• GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903)

Gegenbaur, Untersuch. z. vergl . Anat. d . Wirbelthiere, I . Carpus and See also:

• TARSUS (mod. Tersous)

Tarsus, II . Schultergiirtel (Leipzig, 1864-1865) ; P . Harting, L'Appareil episternal des oiseaux (See also:

• UTRECHT
• UTRECHT, TREATY OF

Utrecht, 1864); T . H . Huxley, ' On the Classification of Birds and on the Taxonomic Value of the Modifications of certain of the Cranial Bones . . ." P.Z.S., 1867; G . Jaeger, " Das Wirbelkor ergelenk der Vogel," Sitzb . K . Ak .

Wiss., Wien, xxxiii., 1858; A . Johnson, " On the Development of the Pelvic Girdle and Skeleton of the Hind-limb in the Chick," Q.J.M.S., See also:

• XXIII

xxiii., 1883, pp . 399-411; K . F . Kessler, " Osteologie der Vogelfusse," See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• SOC

Soc . See also:

• IMP
• IMP (O. Eng. impa, a graft, shoot; the verb impian is cognate with Ger. impfen, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. enter; the ultimate origin is probably the Gr. 'µ4uety, to implant, cf. Et.A4Uros, engrafted)

Imp . Nat., See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow, xiv., , 1841; B . See also:

• LINDSAY

Lindsay, " On the Avian Sternum," P.Z.S., 1885; E . Mehnert, " Entwickelung des Ospelvis der Vogel," Morph . Jahrb., xiii., 1877; A . B .

See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer, Abbildungen von Vogel-Skeletten (See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden, 1879) ; St G . See also:

• MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON (1827-1900)

Mivart, " On the Axial Skeleton of the Ostrich, Struthionidae, Pelecanidae," Trans . Zool . Soc. viii., 1874; x., 1877; E . S . See also:

• MORSE, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE (1791—1872)

Morse, " On the Carpus and Tarsus of Birds," Ann . Lyc . N.H., New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, x., 1874; J . S . Parker, " Ob- servations on the Anatomy and Development of Apteryx," Phil . Trans., 1890, pp . I-Ilo, 17 pls.; W .

K . Parker, numerous papers in Trans . L.S., R.S. and Z.S., e.g . " See also:

• OSTEOLOGY (Gr. ovTeov, bone)

Osteology d a of Gallinaceous Birds," T.Z.S., v., 1863 ; " Rhinochetus," ibid. vi . ; "Skull of Aegithognathous Birds," ibid. x., 1878; " Skull in the Ostrich Tribe," Phil . Trans. vol . 156, 1866; " Skull of Common Fowl," ibid. vol . 159, 1870; " Skull of Picidae," T . Linn . Soc., 1875; " Monograph on the Structure and Development of the Shoulder-girdle and Sternum," See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray Soc . London, 1868; W . P .

Pycraft, " On the See also:

• MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

Morphology and Phylogeny of the Palaeognathae (Ratitae and Crypturi) and Neognathae," Trans . Zool . Soc. xv., 1900, pp . 149-290, pls . 42-45; id . " Some points in the morphology of the Palate of the Neognathae," T . Linn . Soc . 28, pp . 343-357, pls . 31-32; P . Suschkin, " Zur Morphologie des Vogelskelets .

I . Schadel von Tinnunculus," Mem . Soc., Moscow, xvi., 1900, pp . 1-63, pls . 2 . Muscular System . Of the muscles of the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem or axis, those of the neck and tail are well-developed and specialized, while those of the lower back are more or less reduced, or even completely degenerated owing to the rigidity of this region, brought about by the great antero-posterior extent of the pelvis . The muscles of the limbs show a great amount of specialization, away from the fundamental reptilian and mammalian conditions . The muscles of the fore limbs are most aberrant, but at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time more uniformly developed than those of the hinder extremities . The reasons are obvious . The whole wing is a unique modification, deeply affecting the skeletal, muscular and tegumentary structures, but fluttering, skimming, sailing, soaring are motions much more akin to one another than climbing and grasping, See also:

• RUNNING

running, scratching, paddling and wading . The modifications of the hind-limbs are in fact many times greater (such as extremely long legs, with four, three or only two toes; very short legs, almost incapable of walking, with all four toes directed forwards, or two or one backwards, and two or more connected and therefore bound to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act together, in various B .

Ilium ; Is, ischium; Pb, pubis; d.l, dorso-lumbar vertebrae; Cd, caudal vertebrae ; Am, acetabulum . ways . Thus it has come to pass that the muscles of the hind limbs are, like their framework, more easily compared with those of reptiles and mammals than are the wings, whilst within the class of birds they show an enormous amount of variation in direct correlation with their manifold requirements . The only really aberrant modifications of the wing-muscles are found in the Ratitae, where they are, however, all easily explained by reduction, and in the penguins, where the wings are greatly specialized into blades for See also:

• ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. perµbr, oar)

rowing with See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw-like motions . The wing of the bird is folded in a unique way, namely, the radius parallel with the humerus, and the whole wrist and hand with their ulnar side against the ulna; upper and forearm in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of supination, the hand in that of strong See also:

• ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away)

abduction . Dorsal and ventral bending, even in the extended wing, is almost impossible . Consequently only a few of the original extensor muscles have been pre-served, but these are much modified into very See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• ORGANS

organs, notably the extensor metacarpi radialis longus, the See also:

• EXT

ext. metac. ulnaris and the two radio- and ulnari-metacarpi muscles, all of which are inserted upon the metacarpus by means of long tendons . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief muscular mass, arising from the sternum in the shape of a u, is the pectoralis muscle; its See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres converge into a strong tendon, which is inserted upon the greater tubercle and upper crest of the humerus, which it depresses and slightly rotates forwards during the down-stroke . This great muscle covers completely the supracoracoideus, generally described as the second See also:

• PECTORAL

pectoral, or subclavius muscle, in reality homologous with the mammalian supraspinatus muscle . This arises mostly from the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle formed by the keel with the body of the sternum, passes by a strong tendon through the foramen triosseum, and is inserted upon the upper tubercle of the humeral crest, which it rotates and abducts . The extent of the origin of this muscle from the sternum, on which it leaves converging, parallel or diverging impressions, is of some taxonomic value . Much labour has been bestowed by A .

H . Garrod and Max Fiirbringer upon the investigation of the variations of the inserting tendons of the patagial muscles (fig . 14), mainly from a taxonomic Tri . Exp.sec . From Newton's Dictionary of Birds, by permission of A . & C . Black . point of view . The propatagialis longus muscle is composed of slips from the deltoid, pectoral, biceps and cucullaris muscles . Its strong belly originates near the shoulder joint from clavicle, coracoid and scapula . Its elastic tendon runs directly to the carpus, forming thereby the outer margin of the anterior patagium, or See also:

• FOLD

fold of skin between the upper and forearm, which it serves to extend, together with the propatagialis brevis muscle . This runs down the anterior and outer side of the upper See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, and is attached to the proximal tendon of the extensor metacarpi radialis longus, a little below the outer condyle of the humerus .

In most birds the tendon is split into several portions, one of which is often attached to the outer side of the ulna, below the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow joint, while others are in variable but characteristic ways connected with similar slips of the propatagialis longus . The posterior patagium, the fold between See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk and inner surface of the upper arm, is stretched by the metapatagialis muscle, which is composed of slips from the serratus, superficialis, latissimus dorsi and the expansor secundariorum muscles . This, the stretcher of the cubital quills, is a very interesting muscle . Arising as a long tendon from the sterno-scapular See also:

• LIGAMENT (Lat. ligamentum, from ligare, to bind)

ligament, it passes the axilla by means of a fibrous pulley, accompanies the axillary vessels and nerves along the humerus, and is inserted by a few fleshy fibres on the base of the last two or three cubital quills . Here, alone, at the distal portion of the tendon, occur muscular fibres, but these are unstriped, belonging to the See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category of cutaneous muscles . We have here the interesting fact that a muscle (portion of the triceps humeri of the reptiles) has been reduced to a tendon, which in a secon- . dary way has become connected with cutaneous muscles, which, when strongly developed, represent its belly . The flexor digitorum sublimis muscle arises fleshy from the long elastic See also:

• BAND

band which extends from the inner humeral condyle along the ventral surface of the ulna to the ulnar carpal bone, over which the tendon runs to insert itself on the radial anterior side of the first phalanx of the second See also:

• DIGIT (Lat. digit us, finger)

digit . Owing to the See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity of the humerocarpal band the wing remains closed without any special muscular exertion, while, when the wing is extended, this band assists in keeping it taut . The arm-muscles have been studied in an absolutely exhaustive manner by Furbringer, who in his monumental work has tabulated and then scrutinized the chief characters of fourteen selected muscles . The results are as interesting from a morphological point of view (showing the subtle and See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to