BISKRA  , a See also:

• TOWN

town of See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria, in the See also:

• ARRONDISSEMENT (from arrondir, to make round)

arrondissement of Batna, See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, 15o m . S.W. of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Constantine and connected with it and with See also:

• PHILIPPEVILLE

Philippeville by See also:

• RAIL

rail . It lies in the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara 36o ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• WAD

Wad Biskra, a See also:

• RIVER

river which, often nearly dry for many months in the See also:

• YEAR

year, becomes a mighty torrent after one or two days' See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter . The name Biskra applies to a See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of five or six villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis 3 M. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge gardens full of See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm and See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive trees . The houses are built of hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood . The See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement is on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the oasis; it consists of a broad See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street, the See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

rue Berthe (from which a few See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side streets See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch at right angles), lined with See also:

• EUROPEAN

European houses, the whole in the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of a typical See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French winter resort, a beautiful public See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden, with the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church in the centre, an See also:

• ARCADE

arcade, a pretentious mairie in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance guarded by terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta lions, some See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good shops, a number of excellent hotels and cafes, a See also:

• CASINO (diminutive of casa, a house)

casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and singing girls of the tribe of Walad-See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

Nail . See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East of the public garden is Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection of the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, who took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge therein during the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion of 187r . It contains See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks, See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital and See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government offices . To the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-east lies the See also:

• VILLA

Villa See also:

• LANDON, CHARLES PAUL (1760-1826)
• LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (18o2-1838)

Landon with magnificent gardens filled with tropical See also:

• PLANTS

plants . The population (1906) of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413 . From See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November to See also:

• APRIL

April the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of Biskra is delightful . Nowhere in Algeria can be found• more genial temperature or clearer skies, and while in - summer the thermometer often registers r ro° F. in the shade, and 90° at See also:

• NIGHT

night, the pure dryness of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air in this •practically rainless region makes the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat ment and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, but he was strongly affected by the religious revival of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early years, of the reign of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William IV.; his opinions underwent a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, and under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the neighbouring See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country gentlemen he acquired those strong principles in favour of monarchical government,as the expression of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, of which he was to become the most celebrated exponent .

His religious convictions were strengthened by his See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage to Johanna vonPuttkamer, which took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in 1847 . In the same year he entered public See also:

• LIFE

life, being chosen as substitute for the representative of the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility of his See also:

• DISTRICT

district in the estates-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, which were in that year summoned to See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin . He took his seat with Paella- endurable . The only See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to the climate is the prevalence of high See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold winds in winter . These winds cause temperatures as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as 36°, but the mean See also:

• READING

reading, on an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of ten years, is 73° . In the oasis are some 200,000 See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trees, of which about 150,000 are date-palms, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest being See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives, pomegranates and apricots . In the centre of the oasis is the old kasbahor citadel . In 1844 the duc d'See also:

• AUMALE
• AUMALE, HENRI EUGENE PHILIPPE LOUIS

Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the night of the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed the French See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison were, with one exception, massacred by Arabs . In the fort are a few fragments of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• WORK

work—all that remains of the Roman See also:

• POST

post Ad Piscinam . Biskra is the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a See also:

• RACE

race of mixed See also:

• BERBER

Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern slopes of the Aures to the Shat Melrir . These villages, built in oases dotted over the See also:

• DESERT

desert, nestle in groves of date-palms and fruit trees and waving See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley . The most interesting See also:

• VILLAGE

village is that of Sidi Okba, 12 M. south-east of Biskra .

It is built of houses of one See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story made of See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-dried bricks . The See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque is square, with a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat roof supported on See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay columns, and crowned by a See also:

• MINARET (from the Arabic mandrat ; manar or miner is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which liar, fire, is lit)

minaret . In the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west corner of the mosque is the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Sidi Okba, the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the Arabs who. in the 1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of the Hegira conquered See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa for See also:

• ISLAM

Islam from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt to See also:

• TANGIER (locally TANJAH)

Tangier . Sidi Okba was killed by the See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers near this place in A.D . 682 . On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters, " This is the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi . May See also:

• GOD

God have See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy upon him." No older Arabic inscription is known to exist in Africa .