BLEACHING  , the See also:

• PROCESS

process of whitening or depriving See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, an operation incessantly in activity in nature by the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of See also:

• LIGHT

light, See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air and moisture . The See also:

• ART

art of bleaching, of which we have here to treat, consists in inducing the rapid operation of whitening agencies, and as an See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry it is mostly directed to See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• LINEN

linen, See also:

• SILK

silk, See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool and other textile See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres, but it is also applied to the whitening of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper-pulp, bees'-See also:

• WAX

wax and some See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils and other substances . The See also:

• TERM

term bleaching is derived from the A.-S. blaesan, to bleach, or to fade, from which also comes the cognate See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German word bleichen, to whiten or render See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale . Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, were known in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England as " whitsters," a name obviously derived from the nature of their calling . The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of the same antiquity as the See also:

• WORK

work of washing textures of linen,cotton or other See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable fibres . Clothing repeatedly washed, and exposed in the open air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter and whiter See also:

• HUE

hue, and our ancestors cannot have failed to See also:

• NOTICE

notice and take See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of this fact . Scarcely anything is known with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by the nations of antiquity . See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early ages was the See also:

• GREAT

great centre of textile manufactures, and her See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white and coloured linens were in high repute among contemporary nations . As a uniformly well-bleached basis is necessary for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of a satisfactory dye on See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, it may be assumed that the Egyptians were fairly proficient in bleaching, and that still more so were the Phoenicians with their brilliant and famous See also:

• PURPLE

purple dyes . We learn, from See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, that different See also:

• PLANTS

plants, and likewise the ashes of plants, which no doubt contained See also:

• ALKALI

alkali, were employed as detergents . He. mentions particularly the Struthium as much used 'for bleaching in See also:

• GREECE

Greece, a plant which has been identified by some with Gypsophila Struthium . But as it does not appear from See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• SIBTHORP, JOHN (1758-1796)

Sibthorp's See also:

• FLORA

Flora Graeca, edited by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, that this See also:

• SPECIES

species is a native of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that the Struthium of the ancients was the Saponaria officinalis, a plant See also:

• COMMON

common in Greece, is certainly more probable .

In See also:

• MODERN

modern times, down to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 18th century, the Dutch possessed almost a See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of the bleaching See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade although we find mention of bleach-See also:

• WORKS

works at See also:

• SOUTHWARK

Southwark near See also:

• LONDON

London as early as the middle of the 17th century . It was customary to send all the See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown linen, then largely manufactured in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, to See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland to be bleached . It was sent away in the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March, and not returned till the end of See also:

• OCTOBER

October, being thus out of the hands of the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant more than See also:

• HALF

half a See also:

• YEAR

year . The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted in the neighbourhood of See also:

• HAARLEM

Haarlem, was to steep the linen first in a See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste See also:

• LYE (0. Eng. leag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of soap and water, and " laundry ")

lye, and then for about a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week in a potash lye poured over it boiling hot . The cloth being taken out of this lye and washed, was next put into wooden vessels containing See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter-See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, in which it See also:

• LAY

lay under a pressure for five or six days . After this,,it was spread upon the grass, and kept wet for several months, exposed to the See also:

• SUNSHINE

sunshine of summer . In 1728 James See also:

• ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722)

Adair from See also:

• BELFAST

Belfast proposed to the Scottish See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in See also:

• GALLOWAY
• GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803)
• GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851)

Galloway; this proposal the board approved of, and in the same year re-solved to devote f2000 as premiums for the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of bleachfields throughout the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . In 1732 a method of bleaching with See also:

• KELP (in M.E. culp or culpe, of unknown origin; the Fr. equivalent is varech)

kelp, introduced•by R . See also:

• HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896)
• HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART

Holden, also from See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, was submitted to the board; and with their assistance Holden established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at Pitkerro, near See also:

• DUNDEE
• DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM OF CLAVERHOUSE, VISCOUNT (c. 1649-1689)

Dundee . The bleaching process, as at that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time performed, was very tedious, occupying a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete summer . It consisted in steeping the cloth in alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean, and spreading it upon the grass for some See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . The steeping in alkaline lyes, called bucking, and the bleaching on the grass, called crofting, were repeated alternately for five or six times .

The cloth was then steeped for some days in sour milk, washed clean and crofted . These processes were repeated, diminishing every time the strength of the alkaline lye, till the linen had acquired the requisite whiteness . For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was faithfully copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers were indebted to Dr See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Home of See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, to whom the Board of Trustees paid £See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo for his experiments in bleaching . He proposed to substitute See also:

• WATER

water acidulated with sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid for the sour milk previously employed, a See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion made in consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid; contrived some time before by Dr John See also:

• ROEBUCK, JOHN (1718-1794)
• ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR (1801-1879)

Roebuck, which reduced the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of that acid to less than one-third of what it had formerly been . When this See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was first adopted by-,the bleachers, there was the same outcry against its corrosive effects as arose when See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine was substituted for crofting . A great advantage was found to result from the use of sulphuric acid, which was that a souring with sulphuric acid required at the longest only twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, and often not more than twelve; whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two months, were requisite, according to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . In consequence of this, improvement, the process of bleaching was shortened from eight months to four, which enabled the merchant to dispose of his goods so much the sooner; and consequently to trade with less See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . No further modification of consequence was introduced in the art till the year 1787, when a most important change was • initiated by the use of chlorine (q.v.), an See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element which had been discovered by C . W . See also:

• SCHEELE, KARL WILHELM (1742-1786)

Scheele in See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden about thirteen years before . The See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that this See also:

• GAS

gas possesses the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of destroying vegetable See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, led Berthollet to suspect that it might be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching, and that it would enable See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical bleachers greatly to shorten their processes . In a paper on. chlorine or oxygenated muriatic acid, read before the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Sciences at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris in See also:

• APRIL

April 1785, and published in the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal de Physique for May of the same year (vol .

'See also:

• XXVI

xxvi. p . 325), he mentions that he had tried the effect of the gas in bleaching cloth, and found that it answered perfectly . This See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea is still further See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in a paper on the same substance, published in the Journal de Physique for 1786 . In 1786 he exhibited the experiment to James See also:

• WATT, JAMES (1736-1819)

Watt, who, immediately upon his return to England, commenced a practical examination of the subject, and was accordingly the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person who first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . We find from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was practically employed in the bleachfield of his See also:

• FATHER

father-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, Mr See also:

• MACGREGOR, JOHN [" Roc RoY "] (1825-1892)

Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow, in March 1787 . Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at See also:

• ABERDEEN
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, 1ST EARL O (1637-1720)
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL

Aberdeen by Messrs See also:

• GORDON
• GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833—1870)
• GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692—c. 1754)
• GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-'885)
• GORDON, LEON
• GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793)
• GORDON, PATRICK (1635–1699)
• GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788—1864)

Gordon, Barron & Co., on See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information received from De See also:

• SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE (1740-1799)
• SAUSSURE, NICOLAS THEODORE DE (1767-1845)

Saussure through See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick See also:

• COPLAND, ROBERT (fi. 1515)

Copland of Aberdeen . See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry of See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine in the See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and to his See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent investigations several of the early improvements in the application of the material were due . In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own chlorine and the goods were bleached either by exposing them in See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers to the See also:

• ACTION

action of the gas or by steeping them in its aqueous See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution . If we consider the inconveniences which must have arisen in working with such a pungent substance as See also:

• FREE

free chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the See also:

• HEALTH

health of the work-See also:

• PEOPLE

people, it will be readily understood that the process did not at first meet with any great amount of success . The first important improvement was the introduction in 1792 of See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east de Javel, which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing chlorine in a solution of potash (I See also:

• PART

part) in water (8 parts) until effervescence began . The greatest impetus to the bleaching industry was, however, given by the introduction in 1799 of chloride of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, or bleaching-See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• TENNANT, CHARLES (1768-1838)
• TENNANT, SMITHSON (1761-1815)
• TENNANT, WILLIAM (1784-1848)

Tennant of Glasgow, whereby the bleacher was supplied with a reagent in solid See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form which contained up to one-third of its See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of avail-able chlorine . Latterly frequent attempts have been made to replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of soda, which is prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic decomposition of a solution of common See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt in specially constructed cells, but up to the See also:

• PRESENT

present this mode of See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure has met with only a limited success (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE) .

Bleaching of Cotton . Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as See also:

• YARN

yarn and in the piece . In the raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are those which are naturally contained in the fibres and which include cotton wax, fatty acids, pectic substances, colouring matters, albuminoids and See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• MATTER

matter, amounting in all to some 5 % of the weight of the material . Both in the raw state and in the manufactured See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition cotton also contains small See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are technically known as " motes." These consist of fragments of the cotton See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical means . The bleaching of cotton pieces is more complicated, since the bleacher is called upon to remove the sizing materials with which the manufacturer strengthens the warp before See also:

• WEAVING

weaving (see below) . In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple process in which three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main operations are involved, viz . (1) boiling with an alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters by means of a hypochlorite or some other oxidizing See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent; (3) souring, i.e. treating with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric acid . For loose cotton and , yarn these three operations are sufficient, but for piece goods a larger number of operations is usually necessary in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to obtain a satisfactory result . Loose Cotton.—The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning is only carried' out to a very limited extent, and consists essentially irr first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution of bleaching powder or See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium hypochlorite . It is then again washed, soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and ultimately washed free from acid . Careful treatment is necessary inorder to avoid any undue See also:

• MATTING

matting of the fibres, while any drastic treatment, such as See also:

• HEATING

heating with See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic soda and See also:

• SOAP

soap, as used for other cotton materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax would thereby be removed, and this would detract from the spinning qualities of the fibre . ' In See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the cotton is not intended tO be spun, but is to serve for cotton wool or for the manufacture of See also:

• GUN

gun cotton, more drastic treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable .

Thus, cotton waste is first extracted with See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum spirit or some other suitable solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease which may be present . It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda and See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin soap, washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder, washed, soured and finally washed free from acid . In these operations, a certain amount of matting is unavoidable, and it is consequently necessary to open out the material after drying, in scutchers . Cotton Yarn.—Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks or warps . In principle the processes employed are the same in each case, but the machinery necessarily differs . Most yarn is bleached in the hank, and it will suffice to give an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this process only . The sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of cotton waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary rectangular wooden vat as used in See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing, in which the , yarn is suspended in the liquor from poles which See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest with their ends on the two longer sides of the vat . For bleaching See also:

• YAM

yam in bulk, however, this mode of procedure would involve so much See also:

• MANUAL

manual labour that the process would become too expensive . It is, therefore, mainly with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of See also:

• ECONOMY

economy that machinery has been introduced, by means of which large quantities can be dealt with at a time . The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in a " kier," a large, See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg-ended, upright cylindrical See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel, constructed of See also:

• BOILER

boiler-See also:

• PLATE

plate and capable of treating, from one to three tons of yarn at a time . In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below) . The yarn to he bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled by means of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam with the alkaline lye (3–4 % of soda ash or z % caustic soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed) for periods varying from six to twelve hours .

It is essential that a thorough circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the boiling, and this is effected either by means of a steam See also:

• INJECTOR (from Lat. injicere, to throw in)

injector, or in other ways . As a See also:

• RULE

rule See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low pressure kiers (working up to io lb pressure) are employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers prefer to use high pressure kiers for the purpose . When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6--8 hours), the steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then See also:

• RUNNING

running off, this operation being repeated two or three times . The hanks are, now transferred to a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone cistern provided with a false bottom, from beneath which a See also:

• PIPE

pipe connects the cistern with a well situated below the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor See also:

• LINE

line . The well contains a solution of bleaching-powder, usually of 2° Tw. strength, and this is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by means of a centrifugal See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass See also:

• PUMP

pump and showered over the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the goods through a perforated wooden See also:

• TRAY

tray, passing then by See also:

• GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy)

gravitation through the goods back into the well . The circulation is maintained for one and a half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be white . The bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off, and water is circulated through the cistern to *ash out what bleaching powder remains in the goods . The souring is next carried out either in the same or in a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric or sulphuric acid of 2° Tw. for about half an See also:

• HOUR

hour . This is also allowed to drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all acid, when it is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted . At this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage the yarn may be dyed in light or See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright shades without further treatment, but if it is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued . The blueing may either be effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring matter like See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue 4R or acid See also:

• VIOLET

violet, or by treatment in See also:

• WASH, THE

wash See also:

• STOCKS

stocks with a suspension of See also:

• ULTRAMARINE

ultramarine in weak soap until the colour is uniformly distributed throughout the material . The yarn is now straightened out and dried .

The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process, and it is very seldom that either complications or faults arise, providing that reasonable care and supervision are exercised . The raison d'etre of the various operations is comparatively simple . The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the fatty acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring matter, while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up . If soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed by emulsification . In the operation of bleaching proper, the See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact with the carbonic acid of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere suffers decomposition according to the See also:

• EQUATION (from Lat. aequatio, aequare, to equalize)

equation, Ca(OCI)2+See also:

• CO2

CO2+See also:

• H2O (combined)

H2O-CaCO3+2HOC1, and the hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring matter still remaining from the first operation, by oxidation . At the same time the motes which were swelled up by the alkali are broken up into small fragments and are thus removed . In the operation of souring, the lime which has been deposited on the fibres during the treatment with bleaching powder is dissolved, while at the same time any other metallic oxides (See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, &c.) are removed . Cotton Pieces.—By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in the piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically dealt with in this form than in any other . Though similar in principle to yarn bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat more complex because the pieces contain in addition to the natural impurities of the cotton a considerable amount of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign matter in the form of See also:

• SIZE

size which has been incorporated with the Warp before weaving, with the object of strengthening it . This size consists essentially of See also:

• STARCH

starch (See also:

• FARINA, SALVATORE (1846– )

farina), with additions of See also:

• TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

tallow, See also:

• ZINC

zinc chloride, and occasionally other substances such as See also:

• PARAFFIN

paraffin wax, See also:

• MAGNESIUM [symbol Mg, atomic weight 24.32 (0 = 16)]

magnesium chloride, soap, &c., all of which.must be removed if a perfect bleach is to result . Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the weaving-See also:

• SHED

shed are of common occurrence in piece goods . Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed goods .

The processes employed for these different classes vary but slightly and only in detail . The most drastic bleach is that required for goods which are subsequently to be printed . For dyed goods, the main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove any impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding the formation of any oxycellulose . In bleaching for whites (" See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market bleaching ") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after bleaching . For small lots (I-2o pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on very simple machinery . Thus many small piece dyers conduct the whole of their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine on which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see DYEING) . For muslins, laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand rough handling, the operations are conducted mainly by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, washing being effected in the dash-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel (fig . I), which consists of a cylindrical See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, revolv- See also:

• ING

ing on its See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis . It has four divisions, as shown by the dotted lines, and an opening into each See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division . A number of pieces are put into each, abundance of water is admitted be- See also:

• HIND

hind, and the knocking of the pieces as they alternately dash from one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the division to the other during the revolution of the wheel effects the washing . The process lasts from four to six minutes . For velveteens, See also:

• COR

cor- duroys, heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics in which creasing has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called " open bleach " is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process chiefly in that the goods are treated throughout at full width .

The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e. stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they will pass through a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring of 4 to 5 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter . The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey-See also:

• ROOM

room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with See also:

• TAR

tar or some other indelible material in order that they may be identified after passing through the whole process . They are then stitched together end to end by means of See also:

• SPECIAL

special sewing See also:

• MACHINES

machines, the stitch being of such a nature (See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain stitch) that the See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread can be ripped out at one pull at the end of the operations . Singeing.—In the condition in which the pieces leave the See also:

• LOOM

loom and come into the hands of the bleacher, the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the fabric is seen to be covered with a See also:

• NAP

nap of projecting fibres which gives it a downy See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . For some classes of goods this is not a disadvantage, but in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of cases, especially for prints where a clean surface is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching . This is usually effected by running the pieces at full width over a couple of.arched copper plates heated to a full red See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat by See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire . An arrangement of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind is shown in fig . 2, in which the singe-plates, a and b, are mounted over the flues of a See also:

• COAL

coal fire . The plate b is most highly heated, a being at the end of the flue farthestremoved from the fire . The cloth enters over a See also:

• RAIL

rail A, and in passing over the plate a is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing it receives when it comes to the highly-heated plate b . A See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block d, carrying two rails in the space between the plates, can be. raised or lowered so as to increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against the plates, or, if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them . The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either through a water trough or through a steam box with the object of extinguishing See also:

• SPARKS, JARED (1789-1866)

sparks, and are then plaited down .

The See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed at which the pieces travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable and varies with different classes of material.' In lieu of plates, a See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-iron See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder is sometimes employed (" See also:

• ROLLER

roller singeing "), the heating being effected by causing the See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame of the fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two small rollers at each end and revolves slowly in the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse direction to that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling . For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious that plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which project most, leaving the rest untouched . For such goods, " gas singeing " is employed, which consists in running the pieces over a non-luminous gas flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of the piece, or in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing the flame right through the piece.2 The construction of an ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section in fig . 3 . Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure through pipe a mo the burners b, b, where the mixture See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns with an intense heat . The cloth travels in the direction of the arrows, and in passing over the small nap rollers c comes into contact with the flame four times in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession before leaving the machine . Gas singeing is also used for See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain goods, and being cleaner and under better See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control has largely replaced plate singeing . At this stage the goods which have been browned on the surface by singeing are ready for the bleaching operations . A great many innovations have been introduced in See also:

• RECENT

recent years in the bleaching of See also:

• CALICO

calico, but although it is generally admitted that in point of view of time and economy many of these processes offer considerable advantages, the old process, in which a lime See also:

• BOIL

boil precedes the other operations, is still the one which is most largely employed by bleachers in England . In this, the sequence of operations is the following— . Grey Washing.—This operation (which is sometimes omitted) simply consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing machine (as shown in fig . 5) through water in order to wet them out .

On leaving the machine they are piled in a heap and See also:

• LEFT

left over See also:

• NIGHT

night, when See also:

• FERMENTATION

fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a large extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water . Lime Boil.—In this operation, which is also known as bowking (Ger. beuchen), the pieces are first run through milk of lime contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a-strength ' Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also employed for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, See also:

• BUNTING
• BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with bunt, to sift, or with the Ger. bunt, of varied colour)
• BUNTING, J
• BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858)

bunting, &c.), and for most uniongoods (cotton warp and worsted weft) . - 2 A machine working on this principle has been constructed by F . Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs See also:

• MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728)
• MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723)
• MATHER, RICHARD (1596-1668)

Mather & See also:

• PLATT, THOMAS COLLIER (1833-191o)

Platt, Ltd.) claim that it does better service than the machines constructed on the older principle . hillllllll~Ili1'I IIJ J 00IIIIIIIIOIIII IIIIlllh Int\lijpryVliR . See also:

• ILI

Ili~l I'i l l i, l !III l t1f ilIuluaultrouaoiIuuuIliniuN 4pq' !'dli that they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO) . They are then run over winches and guided through smooth See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain rings (" pot-eyes ") into the kier, where they are evenly packed by boys who enter the vessel through the manhole at the top . It is of the greatest importance that the goods should be evenly packed, for, if channels or loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating through the kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will follow the line of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treatment . Of the numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is the one most generally adopted . This consists of an egg-ended cylindrical vessel constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in sectional See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation in fig . 4 . The kier is from t0 to I2 ft. in height and from 6 to 7 ft. in diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted to the sides, but not shown in the figure .

The bottom exit pipe E is covered with a See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and this is more usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large rounded stones from the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed, the object in either case being simply to provide space for the See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of liquor and to prevent the pipe E being blocked . The cloth is evenly packed up to within about 3 to 4 ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through the liquor pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft. of the top of the goods . The manholes are now closed, and steam is turned on at the injector J by opening the See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve v . The effect of this is to suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through pipe P into the top of the kier, where it dashes against the See also:

• UMBRELLA

umbrella-shaped shield U and is distributed over the pieces, through which it percolates, until on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of the kier, a continuous circulation being thus effected . As the circulation proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly heats the latter to the boil, and as soon as, in the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the fore-See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, all air has been expelled, the See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow-through tap is closed and the boiling is continued for periods varying from six to twelve hours under 20-60 lb pressure . Steam is now