See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. See also:

• BOOT

boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents See also:

• GREAT

great difficulties; See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)  , a comparatively small open See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft for See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance on See also:

• WATER

water, usually propelled by some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• OAR (A.S. kr; M. Eng. ore; Lat. remus; Gr. iperw5s : Sans. aritra; Fr. rame; Ital. Span., Port. Yana)

oar or See also:

• SAIL

sail . The origin of the word " See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat " is probably to be looked for in the A . S. bdt = a See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem, a stick, a piece of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood . If this be so, the See also:

• TERM

term in its inception referred to the material of which the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel was constructed, and in this respect may well be contrasted with the word " See also:

• SHIP

ship," of which the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea was the See also:

• PROCESS

process by which the material was fashioned and adapted for the use of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to achieve the feat of conveying himself and his belongings by water, succeeded in doing so—(1) by fastening together a quantity of material of sufficient buoyancy to See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float and carry him above the level of the water; (2) by scooping out a fallen See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same purpose . In these two processes is to be found the See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis of both boat and ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the former is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such as is dealt with in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article . For the larger type the reader is referred to SHIP . See also:

• GREAT

Great must have been the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the man who first discovered that the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie together would, propelled by a stick or a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch (cf. See also:

• RAMUS, PETRUS, or PIERRE DE LA RAMEE (1515-1572)

ramus and remus) used as See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole or See also:

• PADDLE

paddle, convey him safely across the See also:

• RIVER

river or See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, which had hitherto been his barrier . But use multiplies wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests improvements . Man soon found out that he wanted to go faster than the raft would move, that the water washed over and up through it, and this need of See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed, and of dry carrying See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, which we find operative throughout the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the boat down to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, drove him to devise other modes of flotation as well as to try to improve his first invention . The invention of the hollowed See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk, of the " dug-out " (monoxylon), however it came about, whenever and wherever it came into comparison with the raft, must have superseded the latter for some purposes, though not by any means for all . It was See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the raft in speed, and was, to a certain extent, water-tight .

On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand it was inferior in carrying power and stability . But the two types once conceived had come to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine the useful properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of vessel to which the name of boat may be applied . The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the description, given us by See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer in the Odyssey, of the construction by the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Ulysses of a vessel of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . Floating See also:

• TIMBER

timber is cut down and carefully shaped and planed with See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe and See also:

• ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is unknown)

adze, and the timbers are then exactly fitted See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face and compacted with trenails and dowels, just as the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of a lump or lighter might be fashioned and fitted nowadays . A See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform is raised upon the floor and a See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark of osiers contrived to keep out the See also:

• WASH, THE

wash of the waves (cf. infra, See also:

• MALAY

Malay boats) . It seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea ways of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, intended to convey the idea of progress in construction, as illustrated by the technical skill of his hero, and the use of the various tools with which he supplies him . On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations . The largest tree that could be thrown and scooped out afforded but a narrow space for carrying goods, and presented problems as to stability which must have been very difficult to solve . The shaping of See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow and stern, the bulging out of the sides, the flattening of the bottom, the invention of a See also:

• KEEL

keel piece, the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to raise the sides by See also:

• BUILDING

building up with planks, all led on towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or perhaps to the invention of the See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe, which in some ways may be regarded as the intermediate See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage between dug-out and boat . Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as those which Homer indicates . It had arrived at a floor composed of timbers squared and shaped . It had risen to a platform, the prototype of a See also:

• DECK

deck .

It was but a step to build up the sides and turn up the ends, and at this point we reach the genesis of See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark and See also:

• PUNT (from Lat. ponto, pontoon; connected with pons, bridge)

punt, of sanpan and See also:

• JUNK

junk, or, in other words, of all the many varieties of flat-bottomed craft . When once we have reached the point at which the improvements in the construction of the raft and dug-out bring them, as it were, within sight of each other, we can enter upon the history of the development of boats properly so called, which, in accordance with the uses and the circumstances that dictated their build, may be said to be descended from the raft or the dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the respective advantages of the two See also:

• ORIGINAL

original types . Uses and circumstances are See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite in variety and have produced an infinite variety of boats . But we may safely say that in all cases the need to be satisfied, the nature of the material available, and the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the difficulties to be overcome have governed the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason and tested the reasonableness of the See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture of the craft in use . It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into the details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions in the method of building, which, though they run back into the far past, in some form or other survive and are in use at the present day . The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown in the See also:

• LUMBER

lumber See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube or of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America, nor was it in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early days confined to the raft . It extended to many boats properly so called, even to many of those built by the Vikings of old . It may still be seen in the See also:

• MADRAS

Madras surf boats, and in those constructed out of driftwood by the inhabitants of See also:

• EASTER

Easter See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south Pacific . See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil, who was an archaeologist, represents See also:

• CHARON

Charon's boat on the See also:

• STYX

Styx as of this construction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft of the kind when loaded " Gemuit sub pondere cymba Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!" Aen. vi . 303 . Next to the raft, and to be counted in See also:

• DIRECT

direct descent from it, comes the whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts and lighters . As soon as the method of constructing a solid floor, with trenails and dowels, had been discovered, the method of converting it into a water-tight See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box was pursued, sides were attached See also:

• PLANK

plank See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, with strong knees to stiffen them, and See also:

• CROSS

cross pieces to yoke or See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key (cf .

'uyov, KXrlis) them together . These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested seats for those that plied the paddle or the oar . The ends of the vessel were shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side planking convergent in stem or stern See also:

• POST

post, or joined together fore and aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made water-tight by caulking, and by smearing with See also:

• BITUMEN

bitumen or some resinous material . The See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-bottomed type, and following the configuration of the dug-out in its length and rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive See also:

• ART

art and skill of constructors much more severely than that of the raft . It is possible that the See also:

• CORACLE (Welsh corwg-1, from corwg, cf. Irish and mod. Gaelic airsick, boat)

coracle or the canoe may have suggested the construction of a framework of sufficient stiffness to carry a water-tight wooden skin, such as would successfully resist the pressure of See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and water . And in this regard two methods were open to the builder, both of which have survived to the present day: (1) the construction first of the See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell of the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework of requisite See also:

• SIZE

size and shape, on to which the See also:

• OUTER

outer skin of the boat was subsequently attached . Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts together, two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main types of build must be noticed, in accordance with which a boat is said to be either carvel-built or See also:

• CLINKER

clinker-built . (r) A boat is carvel-built when the planks are laid edge to. edge so that they present a smooth See also:

• SURFACE

surface without . (2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is laid on so as to overlap the one below it, thus presenting a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of ledges See also:

• RUNNING

running longitudinally . The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps of Eastern origin . The latter was probably invented by the old Scandinavian builders, and from then handed down through the fishing boats of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern nations to our own time . The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoenicians generally refer to larger craft which naturally fall under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of SHIP (q.v.) .

The See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile boats, however, described by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (ii . 6o), built of See also:

• ACACIA

acacia wood, were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite small, but all following the same type of construction, built up See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long poles secured by cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus . The ends See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose high above the water, and to prevent hogging were often attached by a See also:

• TRUSS (from O. Fr. trusser, trosser, torser, trousser, to pack, bind, gird up, Low Lat. tortiare, formed from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist; cf. " torch " and " trousers," also trousseau, a bride's outfit, literally a small pack or bundle)

truss running longitudinally over crutches from stem to stern . The See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus (i . 194), built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins smeared with bitumen, were really more like huge coracles and hardly deserve the name of boats . The use of boats by the Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans is attested by the frequent reference to them in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin literature, though, as regards such small craft, the details given are hardly enough to form the basis of an accurate See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification . We hear of small boats attendant on a See also:

• FLEET

fleet (KEA7ITLOV, Thuc . i . 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv . 9), and in one See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a sculling boat, or pair oar (aKartov 44pt<6v, Thuc. iv . 67), which was carted up and down between the See also:

• TOWN

town of See also:

• MEGARA

Megara and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding at See also:

• NIGHT

night . We are also See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with the passage in the Acts (See also:

• XXVII

xxvii.) where in the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm they had hard See also:

• WORK

work "to come by the boat"; which same boat the sailors afterwards "let down into the sea, under See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour as though they would have See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast anchors out of the foreship," and would have escaped to See also:

• LAND

land in her themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the See also:

• CENTURION (Lat. centuria)

centurion and soldiers acting upon St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice had not cut off the See also:

• ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836–1899)

ropes of the boat and let her fall off .

There can be little doubt that boat races were in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue among the Greeks (see Prof . See also:

• GARDNER
• GARDNER, PERCY (1846– )

Gardner, See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Hellenic Studies, ii . 91 ff.), and probably formed See also:

• PART

part of the Panathenaic and Isthmian festivals . It is, however, difficult to prove that small boats took part in these races, though it is not unlikely that they may have done so . The testimony of the coins, such as it is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term (vEiav aµtXAa) leads to the same conclusion . It is hardly possible now to define the See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences which separated &carps, a,artov, from KEArjs, , e ?rtov, or from AEµ(3os, or Kapaf3os . They seem all to have been See also:

• ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. perµbr, oar)

rowing boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels (acatii modo carinata, Plin. ix . 19), and to have varied in size, some being simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as See also:

• THIRTY

thirty oars . Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats accompanying See also:

• SHIPS

ships of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . Of this there is a well-known instance in the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar's invasion of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain (B.G. iv . 26), when the boats of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled with soldiers and sent to assist the Legionaries who were being fiercely attacked as they waded on to the See also:

• SHORE

shore . There is also an instance in the See also:

• CIVIL

civil war, which is a prototype of a See also:

• MODERN

modern attack of See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo boats upon men of war, when See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius manned the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty, and with them attacked and defeated an imprudent See also:

• SQUADRON

squadron of Quadriremes (B.C. iii .

24) . The class of boats so frequently mentioned as actuariae seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to have been used for all purposes, whether as See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure boats or as despatch vessels, or for piracy . In fact the term was employed vaguely just as we speak of craft in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . IV . 497 The lembus, which is often referred to in See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy and See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius, seems to have been of Illyrian origin, with See also:

• FINE

fine lines and See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp bows . The class contained boats of various sizes and with a variable number of oars (biremis, Livy See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 40, sexdecim, Livy xxxiv . 35); and it is interesting to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note the origin in this case, as the invention of the See also:

• LIGHT

light Liburnian galleys, which won the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• ACTIUM (mod. Punta)

Actium, and altered the whole See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• NAVAL

naval construction, came from the same seaboard . Besides these, the piratical myoparones (see Cie . In Verrem), and the poetical phaselus, deserve mention, but here again we are met with the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships . There is also an interesting See also:

• NOTICE

notice in See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus (Hist. iii . 47) of boats hastily constructed by the natives of the northern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, which he describes as of broad See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam with narrow sides- (probably meaning that the sides "tumbled See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home"), joined together without any fastenings of See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass or See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron .

In a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they were cased in as with a roof, whence their name camarae, and so they rolled about in the waves, having See also:

• PROW

prow and stern alike and convertible rowlocks, so that it was a See also:

• MATTER

matter of indifference and equally safe, or perhaps unsafe, whichever way they rowed . Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign (See also:

• ANN

Ann. ii . 6) and by the Suiones (Ger . 44) . These also had stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old Norse construction, being rowed either way, having the oars loose in the See also:

• ROWLOCK (pronounced rullock or rollock)

rowlock, and not, as was usual in the south, attached by a thong to the thowl See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin . Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft, we may notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which plied on the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber as See also:

• FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare," to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. fahren; it is connected with the root of Gr. 7ropos, way, and Lat. portage, to carry)
• FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832—1893)

ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were called codicariae from caudex, the old word for a plank . It is difficult to trace any See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of development in the construction of boats during the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, or the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages . Sea-going vessels according to their size carried one or more boats, some of them small boats with two or four oars, others boats of a larger size fitted with masts and sail as well as with oars . We find lembus and phaselus as generic names in the earlier period, but the indications as to size and character are vague and variable . The same may be said of the batelli, coquets, chaloupes, chalans, gattes, &c., of which, in almost endless number and variety, the nautical erudition of M . Jal has collected the names in his monumental See also:

• WORKS

works, Archeologie navale and the Glossaire nautique . It is clear, however, that in many instances the names, originally applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached themselves to larger vessels, as in the case of chaloupe and others, a fact which leads to the conclusion that the type of build followed originally in smaller vessels was often See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, according as it was found useful and convenient, while the name remained the same .

Many of these types still survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in the Mediterranean or in the northern See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters, each of which has its own peculiarities of build and rig . It would be impossible within our limits to do See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice to the number and variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for more detailed See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information concerning them the reader would do well to consult See also:

• MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic languages, and ultimately connected with " meat")
• MAST (I) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mast us comes Fr. malt)

Mast and Sail in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and Existing types . Asia, by H . Warington See also:

• SMYTH (or SMITH), JOHN (c. 1570-1612)
• SMYTH (or SMITH), WILLIAM (c. 1460-1514)
• SMYTH, CHARLES
• SMYTH, SIR WARINGTON WILKINSON (1817-1890)

Smyth, an excellent and exhaustive work, from which much of the information which follows regarding them has been derived . In the Eastern seas the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese sanpan is ubiquitous . Origin-ally a small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew into a boat in very early times, and has given its name to a very large class of vessels . With flat bottom, and considerable width in proportion to its length, the normal sanpan runs out into two tails astern, the timbers rounding up, and the end being built in like a bulkhead, with See also:

• ROOM

room for the See also:

• RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower)

rudder to work between it and the See also:

• TRANSOM (probably a corruption of Lat. transtrum, a thwart, in a boat; equivalents are Fr. traverse, croisillon, Ger. Losholz)

transom which connects the two projecting upper timbers of the stern . Some of them are as much as 30 ft. in II See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient boats . length and 8 to ro ft. in beam . They are See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• CARRIERS

carriers and speedy under sail . The Chinese in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability were the earliest of all peoples to solve the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief problems of boat building, and after their own fashion to work out the art of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, which for them has now been set and unchanged for thousands of years . They appear to have used the See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee-hoard and centre-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board in junks and sanpans, and to have extended their trade to See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and even beyond, centuries before anything like maritime enterprise is heard of in the north of Europe .

As regards the practice of long boat racing on See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers or tidal waters the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

• WORLD

world . On great festivals in certain places the See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

Dragon boat See also:

• RACE

race forms part of the ceremony . The Dragon boats are just over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam, and See also:

• DEPTH

depth 21 in . The rowing or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the number of thwarts 27, thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as that of the Zygites in the Greek trireme . The two extremities of the boat are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water . At about 5 ft. from each end the single plank gives See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to three, so as to offer a See also:

• CONCAVE

concave surface to the water . The paddle blade is See also:

• SPADE

spade-like in form and about 0 in. broad . Both in See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam and See also:

• BURMA

Burma there is a very large river See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, and boat racing is on festival days a See also:

• COMMON

common amusement . The typical craft, however, is the See also:

• DUCK

Duck-boat, which in the shape of See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

hull is in direct contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily intended for sailing . It is interesting to note that the Siamese method of slinging and using See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter rudders is the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest used by men in sailing craft, being in fact the earliest development from the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple paddle rudder, which has in all ages been the first method of steering boats . The See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Siam's See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• BARGE (Med. Lat. barca, possibly connected with Lat. baris, Gr. flaps, a boat used on the Nile)

barge, we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the same way as is figured in the case of the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian boats of the 3rd See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty (6000 B.C.) . On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the same in fashion as those used by See also:

• ROMAN

Roman and Greek merchantmen, by Norsemen and Anglo-See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons, and by See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen down to about the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century .

The See also:

• MALAYS

Malays have generally the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of being See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert boat-builders, but the See also:

• LOCAL

local conditions are not such as to favour the construction of a good type of boat . " Small displacement, hollow lines, V-shaped sections, shallow See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught and lack of beam " result in want of stability and weatherliness . But it is among them that the ancient process of dug-out building still survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and ingenious methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides outwards, and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that from the dug-out a See also:

• REGULAR

regular boat is formed, with increased though limited carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient stability . To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and contrivances are resorted to . In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer, Od. v . 256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos all along the sides of his boat . These being very buoyant not only See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as a See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence against the wash of the waves, but are sufficient to keep the boat afloat in any sea . But the most characteristic See also:

• DEVICE

device is the outrigger, a piece of floating wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to the longer See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams, by two or more poles laid at right angles to it . This, while not interfering materially with the speed of the boat, acts as a counterpoise to any pressure on it which would tend, owing to its lack of stability, to upset it, and makes it possible for the long narrow dug-out to face even the open sea . It is remarkable that this invention, which must have been seen by the Egyptians and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by them into the Mediterranean . Possibly this was owing to the lack of large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution by them of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for stability . On the other hand in the boats of India the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Egyptian and Arab types of build is apparent, and the See also:

• DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu dengi a small boat, the diminutive of denga, a sloop or coasting vessel)

dinghy ofthe See also:

• HUGLI, or HOOGHLY

Hugli is cited as being in form strangely like the ancient Egyptian See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model still preserved in the Ghizeh museum .

Coming westward the dominant type of build is that of the Arab See also:

• DHOW

dhow, the boat class of which has all the characteristics of the larger vessel developed from it, plenty of beam, overhanging stem and transom stern . The planking of the shell over the wooden See also:

• FRAME

frame has a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double thickness which conduces to dryness and durability in the craft . On the Nile it is interesting to find the nagger preserving, in its construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the old-world fashion of building described by Herodotus . The gaiassa and dahabiah are too large to be classed as boats, but they and their smaller sisters follow the Arab type in build and rig . It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient Egyptian or classical methods of build survives in the Mediterranean, while the records of the development of boat-building in the middle ages are meagre arid confusing . The best illustrations of ancient methods of construction, and of ancient See also:

• SEAMAN, OWEN (1861– )

seaman-ship, are to be found, if anywhere, in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, that conservative storehouse of types and fashions, to which they were either communicated, or from which they were borrowed, by Egyptians or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by Greeks and Romans . In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types belonging to it are " carvel-build, high bow, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round stern and deep rudder hung on stern post outside the vessel." In the eastern See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin the long-bowed wide-sterned See also:

• CAIQUE (from Turk. Kaik)

caique of the See also:

• BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Boo-iopos=ox-ford, tradition-ally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings)

Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek and See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats of " beautiful lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic, the Venetian gondola, and the light craft generally, are of the type developed from the raft, flat-bottomed, and capable of navigating shallow waters with minimum of draught and maximum of load . In the western basin the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the smaller vessels are of the sharp-sterned build . Upon the boats of the See also:

• FELUCCA (an Italian word; in forms like the Span. faluca, Fr. felouque, it appears in other languages; it is probably of Arabic origin, cf. fulk, a ship, and falaka, to be round; the modern Arabic form is falukah)

felucca class, long vessels with easy lines and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• FREE

free-board, suitable for rowing as well as sailing, the influence of the long See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley of the middle ages was apparent . In Genoese waters at the ,beginning of the r9th century there were single-decked rowing vessels, which preserved the name of galley, and were said to be the descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the many-banked vessels of Antonius at Actium . But the introduction of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials of the past . Along the See also:

• RIVIERA

Riviera and the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish coast a type of boat is noticeable which is See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar for the inward See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of both stem and stern from a keel which has considerable See also:

• CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. camera, vault)

camber, enabling them to be beached in a heavy surf .

On the See also:

• DOURO (Span. Duero, Port. Douro, anc. Durius)

Douro, in See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal, it is said that the boats which may be seen laden with casks of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, trailing behind them an enormously long steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry, and that the curious signs, which many of them have painted on the cross board over the See also:

• CABIN

cabin, are of Semitic origin though now undecipherable . Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats, we meet with a totally different type . Instead of the smooth exterior of the carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of clinker-built craft with great beam, and raking sterns and stems, and a wide flare forward . In the most northern waters the strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and of considerable thickness, of See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak or See also:

• FIR

fir, often compacted with wooden trenails, strong and See also:

• FIT

fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough usage which they have to endure . In most of these the origin of form and character is to be sought for in the old See also:

• VIKING

Viking vessels or long keeles of the 5th century A.D., with curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without decks or, at the most, See also:

• HALF

half decked . In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats follow this type, with, however, considerable variety in details . It is noticeable that here also, as in other parts of the world, and at other times, the pressing demand for speed and carrying power 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . has increased the size in almost all classes of boats till they pass into the See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category of ships . At the same time the carvel-build is becoming more common, while, in the struggle for See also:

• LIFE

life, steam and motor power are threatening to obliterate the old types of rowing and sailing boats altogether .

Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest type of boat in northern waters is to be found in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, where the conditions of navigation have hardly altered for centuries . It is to the Dutch that we chiefly owe the original of our pleasure craft, but, though we have developed these enormously, the Dutch boats have remained See also:

• PRETTY

pretty much the same . The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now very much of the same character as they are represented in the old pictures of the 17th and 18th centuries . The development of boat-building in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Isles during the 19th century has been unceasing and would need a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise to itself to do it justice . The expansion of the fishing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and the pressure of competition have stimulated See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant improvement in the craft engaged, and here also are observable the same tendencies to substitute carvel, though it is more expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the length and size of the boats, and the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual supersession of sail and oar by steam power . Under these influences we hear of the fifie and the skaffie classes, old favourites in northern waters, being superseded by the more modern Zulu, which is supposed to unite the good qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to See also:

• RAKE (O.E. rata, cognate with Du. raak, Ger. Rechen, from a root meaning to scrape together, heap up)

rake them outside the category of boats . But even in the case of smaller boats the Zulu model is widely followed, so that they have actually been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the See also:

• CROFTER

crofter fishermen in the congested districts . For the See also:

• SHETLAND, or ZETLAND

Shetland sexern and the broad boats of the Orkneys, and the nabbies of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west coast of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, the curious will do well to refer to H . Warington Smyth's most excellent account . On the eastern coast of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England the influence of the Dutch type of build is See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly round-ended craft, such as the See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire Billyboy, and partly in the See also:

• COBLE (probably of Celtic origin, and connected with the root ceu or caw, hollow; cf. Welsh ceubol, a ferry-boat)

coble, which latter is interesting as built for launching off beaches against heavy seas, and as containing See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of Norse influence, though in the main of Dutch origin . The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admirable class of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow draught, wonderful in their daring work in foul See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather and heavy seas, in which as a See also:

• RULE

rule their services are required . Here, however, as in the fishing boats, the size is increasing, and steam is appropriating to itself the provinces of the sail and the oar .

The wherry of the See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is often fitted out as a pleasure boat . It is safe and comfortable for inland waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in anything but good weather . The See also:

• THAMES

Thames and its See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats, of which the old See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter boat (so called after the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very ancient type of build, shorter and broader than the old Thames pleasure wherry . But these and the old See also:

• HATCH
• HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889)

hatch boat have now almost disappeared . Possibly survivors may still be seen on the upper part of the tidal river . Round the See also:

• ENGLISH

English coast from the mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing and of hauling up boats above high-water See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark affect the type, demanding strong clinker-b