BOILER  MAKING The practice of the boiler,

bridge and girder shops may hereflues, &c., but is scarcely represented in bridge and girder work . Plates are bent to cylindrical shapes in boilermaking, for shells and furnaces, but not in girder work . Welding is much more common in the first than in the second, furnace flues being always welded and stand pipes frequently . In boiler work holes are generally drilled through the seams of adjacent plates . In bridge work each plate or bar is usually drilled or punched apart from its fellows . Boilers, again, being subject to high temperatures and pressures, must be constructed with provisions to ensure some elasticity and freedom of movement under varying temperatures to prevent fractures or grooving, and must be made of materials that combine high ductility with strength when heated to furnace temperatures . Flanging of certain parts, judicious staying, limitation of the length of the tubes, the forms of which are inherently weak, provide for the first; the selection of steel or iron of high percentage elongation, and the imposition of temper, or bending tests, both hot and cold, provide for the second . The following are the leading features of present-day methods . It might be hastily supposed that, because plates, angles, tees, channels and joist sections are rolled ready for use, little work could be left for the plater and boilermaker . But actually so much is involved that subdivisions of tasks are numerous; the operations of templet-making, rolling, planing, punching and shearing, bending,quent stress, with liability to produce fracture . But it has been found that, when a shorn edge is planed and a punched hole enlarged by reamering, no harm results, provided not less than about -iis in. is removed . A great advance was therefore made when specifications first insisted on the removal of the rough edges before the parts were united .

In the work of riveting another evil

long existed . When holes are punched it is practically impossible to ensure the exact coincidence of holes in different plates which have to be brought together for the purpose of riveting . From this followed the use of the drift,—a tapered rod driven forcibly by hammer blows through correspond- Fic . 2o.-Thornycroft-Schulz Water-tube Boiler . welding and forging, flanging, drilling, riveting, caulking, and tubing require the labours of several groups of machine attendants, and of gangs of unskilled labourers or helpers . Some operations also have to be done at a red or white heat, others cold . To the first belong flanging and welding, to the latter generally all the other operations . Heating is necessary for the rolling of tubes of small diameter; bending is done cold or hot according to circumstances . The fact that some kinds of treatment, as shearing and punching, flanging and bending, are of a very violent character explains why practice has changed radically in regard to the method of performing these operations in cases where safety is a cardinal matter . Shearing and punching are both severely detrusive operations performed on cold metal; both leave jagged edges and, as experience has proved, very minute cracks, the tendency of which is to extend under subse-ing holes in adjacent plates, by which violent treatment the holes were forcibly drawn into alignment . This drifting stressed the plates, setting up permanent strains and enlarging incipient cracks, and many boiler explosions have been clearly traceable to the abuse of this tool . Then, next, specifications insisted that all holes should be enlarged by reamering after the plates were in place .

But even that did not prove a safeguard, because it often happened that the metal reamered was nearly all removed from one

side of a hole, so leaving the other side just as the punch had torn it . Ultimately came the era of drilling rivet-holes, to which there is no exception now in high-class boiler work . For average girder and bridge work the practice of punching and reamering is still in use, because the conditions of service are not so severe as are those in steam boilers . Flanging signifies the turning or bending over of the edges of a plate to afford a means of union to other plates . Examples occur in the back end-plates of Lancashire and Cornish boilers, the front and back plates of marine boilers, the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers, the crowns of vertical boilers, the ends of conical cross-tubes, and the Adamson seams of furnace flues . This practice has superseded the older system of effecting union by means of rings forming two sides of a rectangular section (angle iron rings) . These were a fruitful source of grooving and explosions in steam. boilers, because their sharp angular form lacked elasticity; hence the reason for the substitution of a flange turned with a large radius, which afforded the elasticity necessary to counteract the effects of changes in temperature . In girder work where such conditions do not exist, the method of union with angles is of course retained . In the early days of flanging the process was performed in detail by a skilled workman (the angle ironsmith), and it is still so done in small establishments . A length of edge of about to in. or a foot is heated, and bent by hammering around the edge of a block of iron of suitable shape . Then another " heat " is taken and flanged, and another, until the work is complete . But in modern boiler shops little hand work is ever done; instead, plates 4 ft., 6 ft., or 8 ft. in diameter, and fire-box plates for locomotive boilers, have their entire flanges bent at a single squeeze between massive dies in a hydraulic press .

In the

case of the ends of marine boilers which are too large for such treatment, a special form of press bends the edges over in successive heats . The flanges of Adamson seams are rolled over in a special machine . A length of flue is rotated on a table, while the flange is turned over within a minute between revolving rollers . There is another advantage in the adoption of machine-flanging, besides the enormous saving of time, namely, that the material suffers far less injury than it does in hand-flanging . These differences in practice would not have assumed such magnitude but for the introduction of mild steel in place of malleable iron . Iron suffers less from overheating and irregular heating than does steel . Steel possesses higher ductility, but it is also more liable to develop cracks if subjected to improper treatment . All this and much more is writ large in the early testing of steel, and is reflected in present-day practice . A feature peculiar to the boiler and plating shops is the enormous number of rivet holes which have to be made, and of rivets to be inserted . These requirements are reflected in machine design . To punch or drill holes singly is too slow a process in the best practice, and so machines are made for producing many holes simultaneously . Besides this, the different sections of boilers are drilled in machines of different types, some for shells, some for furnaces, some peculiar to the shells or furnaces of one type of boilers, others to those of another type only .

And generally now these machines not only drill, but can also be adjusted to drill to exact

pitch, the necessity thus being avoided of marking out the holes as guides to the drills . Hand-riveting has mostly been displaced by hydraulic and pneumatic machines, with resulting great saving in cost,. and the advantage of more trustworthy and uniform results . For boiler work, machines are mostly of fixed type; for bridge and girder work they are portable, being slung from chains and provided with pressure water or compressed air by systems of flexible pipes . Welding fills a large place in boiler work, but it is that of the edges of plates chiefly, predominating over that of th'e bars and rods of the smithy . The edges to be united are thin and long, so that short lengths have to be done in succession at successive " heats." Much of this is hand work, and " gluts " or insertion pieces are generally preferred to overlapping joints . But in large shops, steam-driven power hammers are used for closing the welds . Parts that are commonly welded are the furnace flues, the conical cross-tubes and angle rings . Another aspect of the work of these departments is the immense proportions of the modern machine tools used . This development rs due in great degree to the substitution of steel for iron . The steel shell-plates of the largest boilers are i? in. thick, and these have to be bent into cylindrical forms . In the old days of iron boilers the capacity of rolls never exceeded about 4 in. plate . Often, alternatively to rolling, these thick plates are bent by squeezing them in successive sections between huge blocks operated by hydraulic pressure acting on toggle levers .

And other machines besides the rolls are made more massive than formerly to

deal with the immense plates of modern marine boilers . The boiler and plating shops have been affected by the general tendency to specialize manufactures . Firms have fallen into the practice of restricting their range of product, with increase in volume . The time has gone past when a single shop could turn out several classes of boilers, and undertake any bridge and girder work as well . One reason is to be found in the diminution of hand work and the growth of the machine tool . Almost every distinct operation on every section of a boiler or bridge may now be accomplished by one of several highly specialized machines . Repetitive operations are provided for thus, and by a system of templeting . If twenty or fifty similar boilers are made in a year, each plate, hole, flange or stay will be exactly like every similar one in the set . Dimensions of plates will be marked from a sample or templet plate, and holes will be marked similarly; or in many cases they are not marked at all, but pitched and drilled at once by self-acting mechanism embodied in drilling machines specially designed for, one set ofoperations on one kind of plate . Hundreds of bracing bars for bridges and girders will be cut off all alike, and drilled or punched from a templet bar, so that they are ready to take their place in bridge or girder without any adjustments or fitting . (J . G .