JAQUES BENIGNE See also:

• JAQUES BENIGNE BOSSUET (1627-1704)

BOSSUET (1627-1704)  , See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French divine, orator and writer, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• DIJON

Dijon on the 27th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1627 . He came of a See also:

• FAMILY

family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers; his See also:

• FATHER

father was a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge of the See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament (a provincial high See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court) at Dijon, afterwards at See also:

• METZ

Metz . The boy was sent to school with the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of See also:

• NAVARRE (Span. Navarra)

Navarre in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris to begin the study of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology; for a pious See also:

• MOTHER

mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his natural vocation . At Navarre he gained a See also:

• GREAT

great reputation for hard See also:

• WORK

work; See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-students nicknamed him See also:

• BOS, LAMBERT (1670—1717)

Bos suetus aratroan ox broken in to the plough . But his abilities became known beyond the college walls . He was taken up by the Hotel de See also:

• RAMBOUILLET
• RAMBOUILLET, CATHERINE DE VIVONNE, MARQUISE DE (1588-1665)

Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the Precieuses . Here he became the subject of a celebrated experiment . A dispute having arisen about extempore See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, See also:

• LATE

late one See also:

• NIGHT

night, to deliver an See also:

• IMPROMPTU (from in promptu, on the spur of the moment)

impromptu discourse . He acquitted himself as well as in more conventional See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations . In 1652 he took a brilliant degree in divinity, and was ordained See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . The next seven years he spent at Metz, where his father's See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence had got him a canonry at the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of thirteen; to this was now added the more important See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

archdeacon . He was plunged at once into the thick of controversy; for nearly See also:

• HALF

half Metz was See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant, and See also:

• BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704)

Bossuet's first See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in See also:

• PRINT

print was a refutation of the Huguenot pastor See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare," to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. fahren; it is connected with the root of Gr. 7ropos, way, and Lat. portage, to carry)
• FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832—1893)

Ferry (1655) .

To reconcile the Protestants with the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church became the great See also:

• OBJECT

object of his dreams; and for this purpose he began to See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train himself carefully for the See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel)

pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a See also:

• LAND

land where See also:

• POLITICAL

political assemblies were unknown, and novels and See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers scarcely born . Not that he reached perfection at a See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound . His youthful See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school . But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659), and three years later mounted the pulpit of the See also:

• CHAPEL

Chapel Royal . In Paris the congregations had no See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy on purely clerical See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic or clerical See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste; if a preacher wished to catch their See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear, he must See also:

• MANAGE

manage to address them in terms they would agree to consider sensible and well-bred . Not that Bossuet thought too much of their See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . Having very stern ideas of the dignity of a priest, he refused to descend to the usual devices for arousing popular See also:

• INTEREST

interest . The narrative See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in his sermons grows shorter with each See also:

• YEAR

year . He never See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew satirical pictures, like his great See also:

• RIVAL

rival See also:

• BOURDALOUE, LOUIS (1632-1704)

Bourdaloue . He would not write out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart: of the two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred printed in his See also:

• WORKS

Works all but a fraction are rough drafts . No wonder ladies like Mme de See also:

• SEVIGNE, MARIE DE

Sevigne forsook him, when Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon in 1669; though See also:

• FENELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC

Fenelon and La Bruyere, two much sounder critics, refused to follow their example . Bossuet possessed the full equipment of the orator, See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, flexibility and strength .

He never needed to See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain for effect; his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius struck out at a single See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow the thought, the feeling and the word . What he said of See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he could "fling his fury into theses," and thus unite the dry See also:

• LIGHT

light of See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument with the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion . These qualities reach their highest point in the Oraisons funebres . Bossuet was always best when at work on a large See also:

• CANVAS

canvas; besides, here no conscientious scruples intervened to prevent him giving much See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and thought to the See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of his subject . For the Oraison, as its name betokened, stood midway between the See also:

• SERMON (Lat. sermo, a discourse)

sermon proper and what would nowadays be called a See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch . At least, that was what Bossuet made it; for on this See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field he stood not merely first, but alone . His three great masterpieces were delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles I . (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans (167o), and the great soldier See also:

• CONDE
• CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE
• CONDE, LOUIS II
• CONDE, PRINCES OF

Conde (1687) . Apart from these See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in a Paris pulpit after 1669 . In that year he was gazetted See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• CONDOM

Condom in See also:

• GASCONY (Wasconia)

Gascony, though he resigned the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge on being appointed See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor to the dauphin, only See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV., and now a boy of nine (1670) . The choice was scarcely fortunate . Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but his genius was by no means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; and the dauphin was a See also:

• CROSS

cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up to be a merely genealogical incident at his father's court .

Probably no one was happier than the tutor, when his charge's sixteenth birthday came See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, and he was promptly married off to a Bavarian princess . Still the nine years at court were by no means wasted . Hitherto Bossuet had published nothing, except his See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to Ferry . Now he sat down to write for his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil's instruction—or rather, to See also:

• FIT

fit himself to give that instruc-tion—a remarkable trilogy . First came the Traite de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme, then the Discours sur l'histoire universelle, lastly the Politique tiree de l'Ecriture Sainte . The three books fit into each other . The Traite is a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general sketch of the nature of See also:

• GOD

God and the nature of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . The Discours is a See also:

• HISTORY

history of God's dealings with humanity in the past . The Politique is a See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of rights and duties See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up in the light thrown by those dealings . Not that Bossuet literally supposed that the last word of political See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom had been said by the Old Testament . His conclusions are only " drawn from See also:

• HOLY

Holy Scripture," because he wished to gain the highest possible See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction for the institutions of his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country—to hallow the See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France of Louis XIV. by proving its astonishing likeness to the See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon . Then, too, the See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil of Holy Scripture enabled him to speak out more boldly than court-See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette would have other-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise allowed, to remind the son of Louis XIV. that See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings have duties as well as rights .

Louis had often forgotten these duties, but Louis' son would See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear them in mind . The tutor's imagination looked forward to a time when France would blossom into See also:

• UTOPIA

Utopia, with a See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian philosopher on the See also:

• THRONE

throne . That is what made him so stalwart a See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of authority in all its forms: " le roi, Jesus-See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ et l'Eglise, Dieu en See also:

• CES

ces trois noms," he says in a characteristic See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter . And the object of his books is to provide authority with a rational basis . For Bossuet's See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of authority by no means killed his confidence in See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason; what it did was to make him doubt the honesty of those who reasoned otherwise than himself . The whole See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of argument seemed to him so clear and See also:

• SIMPLE

simple . See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy proved that a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of human affairs . History showed that this governance is, for the most See also:

• PART

part, indirect, exercised through certain See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable corporations, as well See also:

• CIVIL

civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit obedience as the immediate representatives of God . Thus all revolt, whether civil or religious, is a See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of the Almighty . See also:

• CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674)
• CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658)
• CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626–1712)
• CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF

Cromwell becomes a moral See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster, and the revocation of the See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict of See also:

• NANTES
• NANTES, EDICT OF

Nantes is " the greatest achievement of the second See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine." Not that Bossuet glorified the status quo simply as a clerical See also:

• BIGOT

bigot . The France of his youth had known the misery of divided counsels and civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war; the France of his manhood, brought together under an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign, had suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . Why not, then, strain every See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve to hold innovation at See also:

• BAY

bay and prolong that splendour for all time ?

Bossuet's own Discours sur l'histoire universelle might have furnished an answer, for there the fall of many empires is detailed . But then the Discours was composed under a single preoccupation . To Bossuet the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was the one point of real importance in the whole history of the See also:

• WORLD

world . Over See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet and the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East he passed without a word; on See also:

• GREECE

Greece and Rome he only touched in so far as they formed part of the Praeparatio Evangelica . And yet his Discours is far more than a theological pamphlet . See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal, in utter scorn for See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, might refer the rise and fall of empires to See also:

• PROVIDENCE

Providence or See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance—the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose of See also:

• CLEOPATRA

Cleopatra, or " a little See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand " in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord See also:

• PROTECTOR

protector's See also:

• VEINS

veins . Bossuet held fast to his principle that God works through secondary causes . " It is His will that every great See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change should have its roots in the ages that went before it." Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to grapple with origins and causes, and in this way his See also:

• BOOK

book deserves its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as one of the very first of philosophic histories . From See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing history he turned to history in the making . In 1681 he was gazetted bishop of See also:

• MEAUX

Meaux; but before he could take See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of his see, he was drawn into a violent See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel between Louis XIV. and the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope (see See also:

• GALLICANISM

GALLICANISM) . Here he found himself between two fires . To support the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated their casuists and devotion aisee almost as much as Pascal himself .

To oppose the pope• was to See also:

• PLAY

play into the hands of Louis, who was frankly anxious to humble the Church before the State . So Bossuet steered a See also:

• MIDDLE

middle course . Before the general See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the French See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy he preached a great sermon on the unity of the Church, and made it a magnificent plea for See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise . As Louis insisted on his clergy making an See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-papal See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration, Bossuet got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could . And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on a gigantic Defensio Cleri Gallicani, only published of ter his See also:

• DEATH

death . The Gallican See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm a little See also:

• ABATED

abated, he turned back to a project very near his heart . Ever since the early days at Metz he had been busy with schemes for uniting the See also:

• HUGUENOTS

Huguenots to the Roman Church . In 1668 he converted See also:

• TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR

Turenne; in 1670 he published an Exposition de la foi catholique, so moderate in See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone that adversaries were driven to accuse him of having fraudulently watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a Protestant taste . Finally in 1688 appeared his great Histoire See also:

• DES

des See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations des eglises protestantes, perhaps the most brilliant of all his works . Few writers could have made the See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

Justification controversy interesting or even intelligible . His argument is simple enough . Without rules an organized society cannot hold together, and rules require an authorized interpreter .

The Protestant churches had thrown over this interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble in showing that, the longer they lived, the more they varied on increasingly important points . For the moment the Protestants were pulverized; but before See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long they began to ask whether variation was necessarily so great an evil . Between 1691 and 1701 Bossuet corresponded with See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz with a view to See also:

• REUNION

reunion, but negotiations See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke down precisely at this point . Individual Roman doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept, but he flatly refused to See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee that they would necessarily believe to-morrow what they believe to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . " We prefer," he said, " a church eternally variable and for ever moving forwards." Next, Protestant writers began to accumulate some startling proofs of Rome's own variations; and here they were backed up by See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon, a priest of the Paris See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

Oratory, and the father of Biblical See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism in France . He accused St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine, Bossuet's own See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, of having corrupted the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

Grace . Bossuet set to work on a Defense de la tradition, but Simon calmly went on to raise issues graver still . Under a veil of politely ironical circumlocutions, such as did not deceive the bishop of Meaux, he claimed his right to interpret the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible like any other book . Bossuet denounced him again and again; Simon told his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends he would wait until " the old fellow " was no more . Another Oratorian proved more dangerous still . Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them See also:

• LAY

lay rules of See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, but See also:

• MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715)

Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether . It was blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of nature would break through a reign of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law He had Himself established .

Bossuet might scribble nova, mira, falsa, in the margins of his book and urge on Fenelon to attack- them; Malebranche politely met his threats by saying that to be refuted by such a See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen would do him too much See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour . These repeated checks soured Bossuet's See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper . In his earlier controversies he had See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot ministers he refuted found him a kindly See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate at court . Even his approval of the revocation of the edict of Nantes stopped far See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of approving dragonades within his See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of Meaux . But now his See also:

• PATIENCE

patience was wearing out . A dissertation by one Father Caffaro, an obscure See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk, became his excuse for writing certain violent Maximes sur la comedie (1694) wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of See also:

• MOLIERE (1622-1673)

Moliere, dead more than twenty years . Three years later he was battling with Fenelon over the love of God, and employing methods of controversy at least as odious as Fenelon's own (1697-1699) . All that can be said in his See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence is that Fenelon, four-andtwenty years his junior, was an old pupil, who had suddenly grown into a rival; and that on the See also:

• MATTER

matter of principle most authorities thought him right . Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet's See also:

• LIFE

life came slowly to an end . Till he was over seventy he had scarcely known what illness was; but in 1702 he was attacked by the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone . Two years later he was a hopeless invalid, and on the 12th of See also:

• APRIL

April 1704 he passed quietly away . Of his private life there is little to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record .

Meaux found him an excellent and devoted bishop, much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring occupations would seem to allow . In general society he was IV . IOkindly and affable enough, though somewhat See also:

• ILL

ill at ease . Until he was over See also:

• FORTY

forty, he had lived among purely ecclesiastical surroundings; and it was probably want of self-confidence, more than want of moral courage, that made him shut his eyes a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.'s private life . After all, he was not the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king's See also:

• CONFESSOR

confessor; and to " reform " Louis, before age and Mme de See also:

• MAINTENON

Maintenon had sobered him down, would have taxed the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel or See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel . But in his books Bossuet was anything but timid . All of them, even the attacks on Simon, breathe an See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air of masculine belief in reason, rare enough among the apologists of any age . Bossuet would willingly have undertaken, as Malebranche actually undertook, to make an intelligent Chinaman accept all his ideas, if only he could be induced to lend them his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . But his best praise is to have brought all the powers of language to paint an undying picture of a vanished world, where See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and letters, See also:

• LAWS

laws and science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable See also:

• PLANETS, MINOR

planets, circling for ever round one central See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

Sun .