See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)  , the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science which includes everything See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom, whether in a living or in a fossil See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . It embraces a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external forms of See also:

• PLANTS

plants—of their anatomical structure, however See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute—of the functions which they perform —of their arrangement and See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification--of their See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution over the globe at the See also:

• PRESENT

present and at former epochs—and of the uses to which they are subservient . It examines the plant in its earliest state of development, and follows it through all its stages of progress until it attains maturity . It takes a comprehensive view of all the plants which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, from the minutest organism, only visible by the aid of the See also:

• MICROSCOPE (Gr. µucp6s, small, asenreiv, to %view)

microscope, to the most gigantic productions of the tropics . It marks the relations which subsist between all members of the plant See also:

• WORLD

world, including those between existing See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups and those which are known only from their fossilized remains preserved in the rocks . We See also:

• DEAL

deal here with the See also:

• HISTORY

history and See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the science . The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries must necessarily have attracted the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of mankind from the earliest times . The science that treats of them See also:

• DATES

dates back to the days of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon, who " spake of trees, from the See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar of See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon to the See also:

• HYSSOP (Hyssopus officinalis)

hyssop on the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall." The Chaldaeans, Egyptians and Greeks were the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early cultivators of science, and See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany was not neglected, although the study of it was mixed up with crude speculations as to vegetable See also:

• LIFE

life, and as to the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of plants into animals . About 300 years before See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ See also:

• THEOPHRASTUS

Theophrastus wrote a History of Plants, and described about 500 See also:

• SPECIES

species used for the treatment of diseases . Dioscorides, a See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek writer, who appears to have flourished about the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero, issued a See also:

• WORK

work on Materia Medica . The See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny described about a thousand plants, many of them famous for their medicinal virtues . See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic and Arabian writers also took up this subject .

Little, however, was done in the science of botany, properly so called, until the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, when the revival of learning dispelled the darkness which had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long hung over See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . See also:

• OTTO

Otto Brunfels, a physician of See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, has been looked upon as the restorer of the science in Europe . In his See also:

• HERBARIUM, or HORTUS

Herbarium, printed at See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number of plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful woodcuts . He was followed by other writers,—Leonhard See also:

• FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON (1774-1856)
• FUCHS, LEONHARD (15o1-1566)

Fuchs, whose Historia Stirpium (See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel, 1542) is worthy of See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note for its excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose Kreutter See also:

• BUCH
• BUCH, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853)

Buch appeared in 1539; and See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• TURNER, CHARLES (1773–1857)
• TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775–1851)
• TURNER, NAT (1800-1831)
• TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847)
• TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615–1686)
• TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568)

Turner, "The See also:

• FATHER

Father of See also:

• ENGLISH

English Botany," the first See also:

• PART

part of whose New Herbal, printed in English, was issued in 1551 . The descriptions in these early See also:

• WORKS

works were encumbered with much medicinal detail, including speculations as to the virtues of plants . Plants which were strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first little See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at systematic classification . A crude See also:

• SYSTEM

system, based on the external See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of plants and their uses to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, was gradually evolved, and is well illustrated in the Herbal, issued in 1597 by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• GERARD (c. 1040-1120)
• GERARD (d. I1o8)
• GERARD, ETIENNE MAURICE, COUNT (1773–1852)
• GERARD, FRANCOIS, BARON (1770-1837)
• GERARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE (1803-1847)
• GERARD, JOHN (1545-1612)
• GERARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN

Gerard (1545–1612), a See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

barber-surgeon, who had a See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden in See also:

• HOLBORN

Holborn, and was a keen student of See also:

• BRITISH

British plants . One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of plants was made in See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence by Andreas See also:

• CAESALPINUS (CESALPIN0), ANDREAS (1519—1603)

Caesalpinus (1519–1603), who is called by See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus See also:

• PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS

Primus verus systematicus . In his work De Plantis, published at Florence in 1583, he distributed the 1520 plants then known into fifteen classes, the distinguishing characters being taken from the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit . John See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray (1627–1705) did much to advance the science of botany; and was also a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good zoologist . He promulgated a system which may be considered as the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of the " natural system " of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day (Ray, Methodus Plantarum, 1682) He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and divided the former into See also:

• DICOTYLEDONS

Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons . His orders (or " classes ") were founded to some extent on a correct See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in his enlightened views of arrangement .

About the See also:

• YEAR

year 167o Dr See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• MORISON, JAMES AUGUSTUS COTTER (1832-1888)

Morison (162o-1683), the first See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of botany at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, published a systematic arrangement of plants, largely on the lines previously suggested by Caesalpinus . He divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing plants according as they were woody or herbaceous, and taking into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account the nature of the See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers and fruit . In 1690 Rivinus 2 promulgated a classification founded chiefly on the forms of the flowers . J . P. de Tournefort3 (1656–1708), who about the same time took up the subject of vegetable taxonomy, was long at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French school of botany, and published a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700 . He described about 8000 species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two classes, chiefly according to the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the corolla, distinguishing herbs and under-shrubs on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand from trees and shrubs on the other . The system of See also:

• TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708)

Tournefort was for a long time adopted on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, but was ultimately displaced by that of Carl von Linne, or Linnaeus (q.v.; 1707-1778) . The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived from the stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual See also:

• ORGANS

organs of the See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower, and hence it is often called the sexual system . It is an artificial method, because it takes into account only a few marked characters in plants, and does not propose to unite them by natural affinities . It is an See also:

• INDEX

index to a See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the See also:

• BOOK

book of nature, and as such is useful to the student . It does not aspire to any higher See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and although it cannot be looked upon as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it has a certain facility of application which at once commended it . It does not of itself give the student a view of the true relations of plants, and by leading to the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the name of a plant, it is only a stepping-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone to the natural system .

Linnaeus himself claimed nothing higher for it . He says—" Methodi Naturalis fragmenta studiose inquirenda sunt . Primum et ultimum hoc in botanicis desideratum est . Natura non facit saltus . Plantae omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in mappa geographica." Accordingly, besides his artificial index, he also promulgated fragments of a natural method of arrangement . The Linnean system was strongly supported by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith (1759–1828), who adopted it in his English See also:

• FLORA

Flora, and who also became possessor of the Linnean collection . The system was for a long time the only one taught in the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, even after it had been discarded by those in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and in other See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental countries . The See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th centuries did much in the way of advancing botany . They were at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants . This was especially the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case at See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities, where medical schools existed . The first botanic garden was established at See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa . The garden at See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden dates from 1577, that at See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig from 1579 .

Gardens also early existed at Florence and See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna . The See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier garden was founded in 1592, that of See also:

• GIESSEN

Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg in 1620, of See also:

• ALTDORF

Altdorf in 1625, and of See also:

• JENA

Jena in 1629 . The Jardin See also:

• DES

des Plantes at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris was, established in 1626, and the See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala garden in 1627 . The botanic garden at Oxford was founded in 1632 . The garden at See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh was founded by Sir See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND (1851-1882)
• BALFOUR, ROBERT (known also as BALFOREUS) (1550?-1625?)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES (of Pittendreich) (d. 1583 Or 1584)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, BART

Balfour and Sir Robert See also:

• SIBBALD, SIR ROBERT (1641-1722)

Sibbald in 167o, and, under the name of the Physic Garden, was placed under the superintendence of James See also:

• SUTHERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in the university . The garden at See also:

• KEW

Kew dates from about 1730, when See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, obtained a long See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease of Kew See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House and its gardens from the See also:

• CAPEL (OF HADHAM), ARTHUR CAPEL, BARON (fl. 164o-1649)

Capel See also:

• FAMILY

family . After his See also:

• DEATH

death in 1751 his widow, Princess See also:

• AUGUSTA

Augusta of See also:

• SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887)
• SAXE, MAURICE, COMTE DE (1696-1750)

Saxe-See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha, showed See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• INTEREST

interest in their scientific development, and in 1759 engaged William See also:

• AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793)

Aiton to establish a Physic Garden . The garden of the Royal See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796; that of Trinity See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow 1 Morison, Praeludia Botanica (1672); Plantarum Historia Universalis (168o) . Rivinus (See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus See also:

• QUIRINUS

Quirinus) See also:

• PATERNO

paterno nomine Bachmann, Introductio generolis in Rem Herbariam (Lipsiae, 1690) . 3 Tournefort, Elemens de botanique (1694); Institutiones Rei Herbariae (1700).in 1818 . The See also:

• MADRID

Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of See also:

• COIMBRA

Coimbra from 1773 . See also:

• JEAN

Jean See also:

• GESNER
• GESNER, ABRAHAM (1797-1864)
• GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691—1761)

Gesner (1709–1790), a Swiss physician and botanist, states that at the end of the 18th century there were 1600 botanic gardens in Europe .

A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine See also:

• LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810–1887)

Laurent de See also:

• JUSSIEU, DE

Jussieu (1748–1836) . His See also:

• UNCLE

uncle, See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard de Jussieu, had adopted the principles of Linnaeus's Fragmenta in his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon . At an early See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age Antoine became botanical demonstrator in the Jardin des Plantes, and was thus led to devote his time to the science of botany . Being called upon to arrange the plants in the garden, he necessarily had to consider the best method of doing so, and, following the lines already suggested by his uncle, adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, in which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted the simplicity of the Linnean See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions, and displayed the natural affinities of plants . His Genera Plantarum, begun in 1978, and finally published in 1789, was an important advance, and formed the basis of all natural classifications . One of the early supporters of this natural method was Augustin Pyramus de See also:

• CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778—1841)

Candolle (1778–1841), who in 1813 published his Theorie elementaire de la botanique, in which he showed that the affinities of plants are to be sought by the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative study of the form and development of organs (See also:

• MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

morphology), not of their functions (See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology) . His Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis was intended to embrace an arrangement and description of all known plants . The work was continued after his death, by his son See also:

• ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (I220-1271)

Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent botanists, and embraces descriptions of the genera and species of the orders of Dicotyledonous plants . The system followed by de Candolle is a modification of that of Jussieu . In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require to have a thorough knowledge of structural and morphological botany, and hence we find that the advances made in these departments have materially aided the efforts of systematic botanists . Robert See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown (1773–1858) was the first British botanist to support and See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate the natural system of classification . The publication of his Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae (in 181o), according to the natural method, led the way to the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of that method in the universities and schools of Britain .

In 1827 Brown announced his important discovery of the distinction between See also:

• ANGIOSPERMS

Angiosperms and See also:

• GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms, and the philosophical character of his work led A. von See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt to refer to him as " Botanicorum facile princeps." In 183o John See also:

• LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865)
• LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- )
• LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808–1900)

Lindley published the first edition of his Introduction to the Natural System, em-bodying a slight modification of de Candolle's system . From the year 1832 up to 1859 great advances were made in systematic botany, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe . The Enchiridion and Genera Plantarum of S . L . Endlicher (1804-1849), the Prodromus of de Candolle, and the Vegetable Kingdom (1846) of J . Lindley became the guides in systematic botany, according to the natural system . The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned with the See also:

• LOWER

lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with the higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams) . The development of the See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound microscope rendered possible the accurate study of their life-histories; and the publication in 1851 of the results of Wilhelm See also:

• HOFMEISTER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH BENEDICT (1824-1877)

Hofmeister's researches on the comparative See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology of the higher Cryptogamia See also:

• SHED

shed a See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood of See also:

• LIGHT

light on their relationships to each other and to the higher plants, and supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups Thallophyta, See also:

• BRYOPHYTA

Bryophyta, See also:

• PTERIDOPHYTA (Gr. 1ripts, fern, and d,vrde plant)

Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last named including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae . A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are frequently now called, Spermatophyta (See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed-plants), which has been much used in Great Britain and in See also:

• AMERICA

America, is that of See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham and See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker, whose Genera Plantarum (1862–1883) is a descriptive account of all the genera of flowering plants, based on their careful examination . The arrangement is a modification of that adopted by the de Candolles . Another system differing somewhat in detail is that of A . W .

Eichler (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1883), a modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf Engler of Berlin, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal editor of See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die naturliche Pflanzenfamilien . The study of the See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy and physiology of plants did not keep See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the advance in classification . See also:

• NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

Grew and his contemporary See also:

• MARCELLO, BENEDETTO (1686-1739)

Marcello See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi were the earliest discoverers in the department of plant anatomy . Both authors laid an account of the results of their study of plant structure before the Royal Society of See also:

• LONDON

London almost at the same time in 1671 . Malpighi's See also:

• COMPLETE

complete work, Anatome Plantarum, appeared in 1675 and Grew's Anatomy of Plants in 1682 . For more than a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years the study of See also:

• INTERNAL

internal structure was neglected . In 1802 appeared the Traite d'anatomie et de physiologie vegetale of C.F . B. de Mirbel (1776–1854), which was quickly followed by other publications by Kurt See also:

• SPRENGEL, KURT (1766-1833)

Sprengel, L . C . Treviranus (1779–1864), and others . In 1812 J . J .

P . Moldenhawer isolated cells by maceration of tissues in See also:

• WATER

water . The work of F . J . F . Meyen and H. von See also:

• MOHL, HUGO VON (1805–1872)
• MOHL, JULIUS VON (1800–1876)

Mohl in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th century placed the study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis . Reference must also be made to M . J . See also:

• SCHLEIDEN, MATTHIAS JAKOB (1804-1881)

Schleiden (1804–1881) and F . Unger (1800–1870), while in K . W. von Nageli's investigations on molecular structure and the growth of the See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell membrane we recognize the origin of See also:

• MODERN

modern methods of the study of cell-structure included under See also:

• CYTOLOGY (from huros, a hollow vessel, and X6yos, science)

cytology (q.v.) . The work of Karl Sanio and Th .

See also:

• HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837)

Hartig advanced knowledge on the structure and development of tissues, while A. de Bary's Comparative Anatomy of the Phanerogams and Ferns (1877) supplied an admirable presentation of the facts so far known . Since then the work has been carried on by Ph. See also:

• VAN

van Tieghem and his pupils, and others, who have sought to correlate the large See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of facts and to find some See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general underlying principles (see PLANTS: Anatomy of ) . The subject of fertilization was one which early excited attention . The idea of the existence of See also:

• SEPARATE

separate sexes in plants was entertained in early times, long before separate male and See also:

• FEMALE

female organs had been demonstrated . The See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of dates in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, by bringing two kinds of flowers into contact, proves that in very remote periods some notions were entertained on the subject . Female date-palms only were cultivated, and See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild ones were brought from the See also:

• DESERT

desert in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to fertilize them . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that there were male and female date-trees, and that the female required the concurrence of the male to become fertile . This fact was also known to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other nations of See also:

• ASIA

Asia and See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . The Babylonians suspended male clusters from wild dates over the See also:

• FEMALES

females; but they seem to have supposed that the fertility thus produced depended on the presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by entering the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen . The See also:

• PROCESS

process was called palmification . Theophrastus, who succeeded See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle in his school in the 114th See also:

• OLYMPIAD

Olympiad, frequently mentions the sexes of plants, but he does not appear to have determined the organs of See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction . Pliny, who flourished under See also:

• VESPASIAN

Vespasian, speaks particularly of a male and female See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm, but his statements were not founded on any real knowledge of the organs .

From Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome in 1603, there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the reproductive organs of plants . Caesalpinus had his attention directed to the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or See also:

• EMANATION (Lat. emanatio, from e-, out, manare, to flow)

emanation from the male plants causing fertility in the female . Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper on the Anatomy of Plants, read before the Royal Society in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1676, the functions of the stamens and pistils . Up to this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period all was vague conjecture . Grew speaks of the attire, or the stamens, as being the male parts, and refers to conversations with Sir See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas Millington, Sedleian professor at Oxford, to whom the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of the sexual theory seems really to belong . Grew says that " when the attire or apices break or open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus, and touches it with a prolific virtue." Ray adopted Grew's views, and states various arguments to prove their correctness in the See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface to his work on See also:

• EUROPEAN

European plants, published in 1694 . In 1694 R . J . See also:

• CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1500-1574)
• CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1534-1598)
• CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB (1665–1721)

Camerarius, professor of botany and See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine at See also:

• TUBINGEN

Tubingen, published a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter on the sexes of plants, in which he refers to the stamens and pistils as the organs of reproduction, and states the difficulties he had encountered in determining the organs of Cryptogamic plants . In 1703 See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel See also:

• MORLAND, GEORGE (1763-1804)

Morland, in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the See also:

• FARINA, SALVATORE (1846– )

farina . (See also:

• POLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG (1794-1855)

pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be conveyed into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific . In this remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the discoveries afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar views promulgated by Schleiden .

In 1711 E . F . See also:

• GEOFFROY
• GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731)
• GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814)

Geoffroy, in a memoir presented to the Royal See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy at Paris, supported the views of Grew and others as to the sexes of plants . He states that the germ is never to be seen in the seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if the stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either not ripen, or be barren if it ripens . He mentions two experiments made by him to prove this—one by cutting off the staminal flowers in See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

Maize, and the other by rearing the female plant of Mercurialis apart from the male . In these instances most of the flowers were abortive, but a few were fertile, which he attributes to the dust of the apices having been wafted by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind from other plants . Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual system . He first published his views in 1736, and he thus writes—" Antheras et stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo, Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, Bradleyo, Royeno, Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et See also:

• PRO

pro infallibili assumptum; nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae See also:

• FLORES

flores, latere potest." He divided plants into sexual and asexual, the former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter Cryptogamous or flowerless . In the latter See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of plants he could not detect stamens and pistils, and he did not investigate the mode in which their germs were produced . He was no physiologist, and did not promulgate any views as to the embryogenic process . His followers were chiefly engaged in the arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive botany made great advances the physiological department of the science was neglected . His views were not, however, adopted at once by all, for we find See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• ALSTON
• ALSTON, CHARLES (1683-176o)

Alston stating arguments against them in his Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants .

Alston's observations were founded on what occurred in certain unisexual plants, such as Mercurialis, See also:

• SPINACH (Spinacia oleracea)

Spinach, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

Hemp, See also:

• HOP (Ger. Hopfen, Fr. houblon)

Hop and Bryony . The conclusion at which he arrives is that the pollen is not in all flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for fertile seeds can be produced without its See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . He supports parthenogenesis in some plants . Soon after the promulgation of Linnaeus's method of classification, the attention of botanists was directed to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of Johann Hedwig (1730–1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses made its appearance in 1782 . He was one of the first to point out the existence of certain cellular bodies in these plants which appeared to perform the functions of reproductive organs, and to them the names of antheridia and pistillidia were given . This opened up a new See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, and led the way in the study of Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries . The interesting observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he had pointed out . Botanists were for a long time content to know that the scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application to the stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect seed, but the stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored . The See also:

• MATTER

matter seemed involved in See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery, and no one attempted to raise the See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil which hung over the subject of embryogeny . The general view was, that the embryo originated in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner fertilized by the pollen . In 1815 L . C .

Treviranus, professor of botany in See also:

• BONN

Bonn, roused the attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but although he made valuable researches, he did not add much in the way of new See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . In 1823 G . B . See also:

• AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1786-1863)

Amici discovered the existence of pollen tubes, and he was followed by A . T . See also:

• BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE (1801–1876)
• BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE (1770-1847)

Brongniart and R . Brown . The latter traced the tubes as far as the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the ovule . These important discoveries See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark a new See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in embryology, and may be said to be the foundation of the views now entertained, which were materially aided by the subsequent elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or cell-development, by Schleiden, See also:

• SCHWANN, THEODOR (1810-1882)

Schwann, Mohl and others . The whole subject of fertilization and development of the embryo has been more recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards both cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must be sought in the various special articles . The observations of See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin as to the fertilization of See also:

• ORCHIDS

orchids, Primula, Linum and Lythrum, and other plants, and the part which See also:

• INSECTS

insects take in this See also:

• FUNCTION

function, gave an explanation of the observations of Christian Konrad Sprengel, made at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 18th century, and opened up a new phase in the study of botany, which has been followed by See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Federico Delpino and others, and more recently by See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul Knuth . One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen See also:

• HALES, JOHN (1584-1656)
• HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571)
• HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761)

Hales .

In his Statical Essays (1727) he gave an account of numerous experiments and observations which he had made on the See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition of plants and the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of See also:

• SAP

sap in them . He showed that the gaseous constituents of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air contribute largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves are the organs which elaborate the See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food; the importance of leaves in nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short account of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical work . The See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of modern See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry in the work of J . See also:

• PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH (1733-1804)

Priestley and See also:

• LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794)

Lavoisier, at the close of the 18th century, made possible the scientific study of plant-nutrition, though See also:

• JAN

Jan Ingenhousz in 1779 discovered that plants incessantly give out carbonic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid See also:

• GAS

gas, but that the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green leaves and shoots only exhale See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby indicating the distinction between assimilation of carbonic acid gas (photosynthesis) and respiration . N . T. de See also:

• SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE (1740-1799)
• SAUSSURE, NICOLAS THEODORE DE (1767-1845)

Saussure (1767–1845) gave precision to the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative methods . The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further studied by R . J . H . See also:

• DUTROCHET, RENE JOACHIM HENRI (1776-1847)

Dutrochet towards the middle of the century, and See also:

• LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873)

Liebig's application of chemistry to See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and physiology put beyond question the parts played by the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere and the See also:

• SOIL

soil in the nutrition of plants . The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted the attention of John Ray (f 693), who ascribed the movements of the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf of See also:

• MIMOSA (so named from the movements of the leaves in many species which " mimic " animal sensibility)

Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature . Linnaeus also studied the periodical movements of flowers and leaves, and referred to the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of the See also:

• NIGHT

night-position as the See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep-movement .

Early in the 19th century Andrew See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight showed by experiment that the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical growth of stems and roots is due to the influence of See also:

• GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy)

gravitation, and made other observations on the relation between the position assumed by plant organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet, H. von Mohl and others contributed to the advance of this phase of plant physiology . Darwin's experiments in reference to the movements of climbing and See also:

• TWINING, THOMAS (1735-1804)

twining plants, and of leaves in insectivorous plants, have opened up a wide field of inquiry as to the relation between plants and the various external factors, which has attracted numerous workers . By the work of See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• SACHS, HANS (1494-1576)
• SACHS, JULIUS VON (1832-1897)
• SACHS, MICHAEL (1808–1864)

Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a .cientific basis, and became an important part of the study of plants, for the development of which reference may be made to the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article PLANTS: Physiology . The study of form and development has advanced under the name " morphology," with the progress of which are associated the names of K . Goebel, E . Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while more recently, as cytology (q.v.), the intimate study of the cell and its contents has attracted considerable attention . The department of See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical botany made rapid advance by means of the various scientific expeditions which have been sent to all quarters of the globe, as well as by individual effort (see PLANTS: Distribution) since the time of A. von Humboldt . The question of the mode in which the floras of islands and of continents have been formed gave rise to important speculationsby such eminent botanical travellers as Charles Darwin, Sir J . D . Hooker, A . R . See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace and others .

The connexion between See also:

• CLIMATE

climate and vegetation has also been studied . Quite recently under the name of " Ecology " or " See also:

• OECOLOGY, or ECOLOGY (from Gr. otKOS, house, and klyos, department of science)

Oecology " the study of plants in relation to each other and to their environment has become the subject of systematic investigation . The subject of palaeontological botany (see See also:

• PALAEOBOTANY

PALAEOBOTANY) has been advanced by the researches of both botanists and geologists . The nature of the climate at different epochs of the earth's history has also been determined from the character of the flora . The works of A . T . Brongniart, H . R . Goeppert and W . P . Schimper advanced this department of science . Among others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may be noticed See also:

• OSWALD (c. 605—642)
• OSWALD (d. 992)

Oswald Heer (1809–x883), who made observations on the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene flora, especially in See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta (1823–1895), who examined the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary flora; Sir J .

W . See also:

• DAWSON, GEORGE (1821-1876)
• DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1899)

Dawson and See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo Lesquereux, and others who reported on the See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian and See also:

• AMERICAN

American fossil plants . In Great Britain also W . C . William-son, by his study of the structure of the plants of the See also:

• COAL

coal-See also:

• MEASURES

measures, opened up a new See also:

• LINE

line of research which has been followed by See also:

• BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE (1773-1844)

Bertrand Renault, D . H . See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott, A . C . See also:

• SEWARD, ANNA (1747-1809)
• SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY (180r-1872)

Seward and others, and has led to important discoveries on the nature of See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct groups of plants and also on the phylogeny of existing groups . Botany may be divided into the following departments: I . Structural, having reference to the form and structure of the various parts, including (a) Morphology, the study of the general form of the organs and their development—this will be treated in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of articles dealing with the great subdivisions of plants (see ANGIOSPERMS, GYMNOSPERMS, PTERIDOPHYTA, BRYOPHYTA, See also:

• ALGAE

ALGAE, See also:

• LICHENS

LICHENS, See also:

• FUNGI (p1. of Lat. fungus, a mushroom)

FUNGI and See also:

• BACTERIOLOGY

BACTERIOLOGY) and the more important organs (see See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

STEM, LEAF, See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

ROOT, FLOWER, FRUIT); (b) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including minute anatomy or See also:

• HISTOLOGY
• HISTOLOGY (Gr. Ler6c, web, tissue, properly the web-beam of the loom, from iQravai, to make to stand)

histology (see PLANTS: Anatomy) . 2 .

Cytology (q.v.), the intimate structure and behaviour of the cell and its contents—See also:

• PROTOPLASM

protoplasm, nucleus, &c . 3 . Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire plant and its organs (see PLANTS: Physiology) . 4 . Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants .(see PLANTS: Classification) . 5 . Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of the distribution of plants on the earth's See also:

• SURFACE

surface (see PLANTS: Distribution) . 6 . Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various strata of which the earth is composed (see PALAEOBOTANY) . 7 . Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each other and to their environment (see PLANTS: Ecology) . Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science, there are various applications of botany, such as forestry (see FORESTS AND FORESTRY), agriculture (q.v.), See also:

• HORTICULTURE
• HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden)

horticulture (q.v.), and materia medica (for use in medicine; see the separate articles on each plant) .

(A . B .