See also:

• BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " advice "; hence a " council ")

BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice "; hence a " See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council ")  , the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TERM

term in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• GREECE

Greece for an advisory See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . In the loose Homeric See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, as in all See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, there was a council of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, probably composed of the heads of families, i.e. of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually on the See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king for the purpose of consultation . Sometimes, however, it met on its own initiative, and laid suggestions before the king . It formed a means of communication between the king and the freemen assembled in the See also:

• AGORA

Agora . In Dorian states this aristocratic See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government was retained (for the Spartan Council of Elders see See also:

• GEROUSIA (Gr. yepovo'ia, Doric yepwta)

GEROUSIA) . In See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens the ancient council was called the See also:

• BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " advice "; hence a " council ")

Boule until the institution of a democratic council, or See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the See also:

• ECCLESIA (Gr. EKKX ria, from Lc, out, and Ka)teiv, to call)

Ecclesia, when, for purposes of distinction, it was described as " the Boule on the See also:

• AREOPAGUS ("Apews Ilayos)

Areopagus," or, more shortly, " the Areopagus " (q.v.) . It must be clearly understood that the second, or Solonian Boule, was entirely different from the Areopagus which represented the Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian See also:

• HISTORY

history, even after the " See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

mutilation " carried out by Ephialtes . Further, it is, as will appear below, a profound See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the second Boule a "See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate." There is no real See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy between the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman senate and the Athenian council of Five See also:

• HUNDRED

Hundred . Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind of which we have even fairly detailed See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, it is necessary to mention that See also:

• COUNCILS

councils existed in other See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek states also, both oligarchic and democratic . A Boule was in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place a necessary See also:

• PART

part of a Greek See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy; the transition from See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun by the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual transference of the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the monarch to the Boule of nobles . Further, in the Greek See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy, the larger democratic Boule was equally essential . The general See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people was utterly unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all their minutiae .

We therefore find councils of both kinds in almost all the states of Greece . (I) At See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth we learn that there was an oligarchic council of unknown See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers presided over by eight leaders (See also:

• NICOL, JAMES (1810-1879)
• NICOL, WILLIAM

Nicol . Damasc . Frag . 6o) . It was probably like the old Homeric council, except that its constitution did not depend on a See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth qualification, but on a high See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census . This was natural in Corinth where, according to See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (ii . 167), See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile pursuits See also:

• BORE

bore no stigma . (2) From an inscription we learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on See also:

• ERYTHRAE [mod. Litri]

Erythrae (about 450 B.C.), included a council analogous to their own . (3) In See also:

• ELIS
• ELIS, or ELEIA
• ELIS, PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL OF

Elis (Thuc. v . 47) there was an aristocratic council of ninety, which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred (471) . (4) Similarly in See also:

• ARGOS

Argos there were an aristocratic council of eighty and later a popular council of much larger See also:

• SIZE

size (Thuc .

V . 47) . Councils are also found at (5) See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes, (6) See also:

• MEGALOPOLIS

Megalopolis (democratic), (7) Corcyra (democratic), (Thuc . 7o) . Of these seven the most instructive is that of Erythrae, which proves that in the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Council of Five Hundred was so efficient in Athens that a similar See also:

• BODY

body was imposed at Erythrae (and probably in the other tributary cities) . The Boule at Athens . History.—The origin of the second Boule, or Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in obscurity . In the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (c . 4), it is stated that See also:

• DRACO (" the Dragon ")
• DRACO (7th century B.C.)

Draco established a council of or, and that he transferred to it some of the functions of the Council of Areopagus (q.v.) . It is, however, generally held (see DRACO) that this statement is untrue, and that it was See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon who first established the council as a part of the constitution . Thirdly, it has been held that the council was not invented either by Draco or by Solon, but was of older and unknown origin . Fourthly, it has also been maintained by some See also:

• RECENT

recent writers that no Boule existed before See also:

• CLEISTHENES

Cleisthenes .

The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence for this view is the omission of any reference to the Boule in one of the earliest Athenian See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, that See also:

• RELATING

relating to See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis (See also:

• HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830)
• HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899)
• HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883)

Hicks and See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, No . 4), where in place of the customary See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of a later See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, EdoEE -r17 0ovXf Kal Tco Siwcp, we have the formula €Soxvev Tcu co . %lThis See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument is far from conclusive, and it is clear from the Constitution (c . 20) that the resistance of the Boule to Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior to the legislation of Cleisthenes (i.e. that the Boule in question was the Solonian and not the Cleisthenian) . On the whole it is reasonable to conclude that it was Solon who invented the Boule to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as a semi-democratic check upon the democracy, whose See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power he was increasing at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the people in the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries . Practically nothing is known of the operations of this council until the struggle between Isagoras and Cleisthenes (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. v . 72) . Solon's council had been based on the four Ionic tribes . When Cleisthenes created the new ten tribes in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to destroy the See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of dominant families and to give the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country demes a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a body of 500 members, 50 from each tribe . This new body (see below) was the See also:

• KEYSTONE

keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and may be said in a sense to have embodied the principle of local See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation . After Cleisthenes, the council remained unaltered till 306 B.c., when, on the addition of two new tribes named after Antigonus and his son, See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius Poliorcetes, its numbers were increased to 600 . In A.D .

126-127 the old number of 500 was restored . A council of 750 members is mentioned in an inscription of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early 3rd century A.D., and about A.D . 400 the number of councillors had fallen to 300 . Constitution and Functions.—(a) Under Solon the council consisted of 400 members, too from each of the four Ionic tribes . It is certain that all classes were eligible except the Thetes, but the method of See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment is not known . Solon's Three suggestions have been made, (1) that each tribe council See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method of selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates was employed . According to the passage in See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch's Solon the functions of this body were from the first probouleutic (i.e. it prepared the business for the Ecclesia) . Others hold that this See also:

• FUNCTION

function was not assigned to it until the Cleisthenean reforms . When we consider, however, the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double danger of leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and yet under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable that the probouleutic functions were devised by Solon as a method of maintaining the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance . On this See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis the Solonian Boule was from the first what it certainly was later, a committee of the Ecclesia, i.e. not a " senate." It may be regarded as certain that the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of Prytaneis was the invention of Cleisthenes, not of Solon . (b) Under Cleisthenes the satheie'nes, council reached its full development ment as a democratic council . . representative body .

Its actual organization is still uncertain, but it may be inferred that it became gradually a more strictly self-existent body than the Solonian council . Every full See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen of See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of age was eligible, and, unlike other See also:

• CIVIL

civil offices, it was permissible to serve twice, but not more than twice (See also:

• ATH, or AATII

Ath . Pol. c . 62) . It may be regarded as certain, although our evidence is derived from inscriptions which date from the 3rd century B.C., that from the first the Bouleutae were appointed by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the deme, and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed . For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of See also:

• DEATH

death or disgrace . After nomination each had to pass before the old council an examination in which the whole of his private See also:

• LIFE

life was scrutinized . After this, the councillors had to take an See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath that they (1) would act according to the See also:

• LAWS

laws, (2) would give the best See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice in their power, and (3) would carry out the examination of their successors in an impartial spirit . As symbols of See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office they wore wreaths; they received See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment originally at the See also:

• RATE

rate of one drachma a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day,' at the end of the 4th century of five obols a day . At the end of the See also:

• YEAR

year of office each councillor had to render an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of his See also:

• WORK

work, and if the council had done well the people voted crowns of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour . Within its own See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere the council exercised disciplinary See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over its members by the See also:

• DEVICE

device known as Ecphyllophoria; it could provisionally suspend a member, pending a formal trial before the whole council assembled ad hoc . The council had further a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete system of See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes or secretaries (grammateis), private See also:

• TREASURY

treasury officials, and a paid See also:

• HERALD (O. Fr. heraut, herault; the origin is uncertain, but O.H.G. heren, to call, or hariwald, leader of an army, have been proposed; the Gr. equivalent is Kddpvi : Lat. praeco, caduceator, fetialis)

herald who summoned the Boule and the Ecclesia .

The meetings took place generally in the council See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall (Bouleuterion), but on See also:

• SPECIAL

special occasions in the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, the See also:

• STADIUM

stadium, the See also:

• DOCKYARDS

dockyards, the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis or the Theseum . They were normally public, the See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience being separated by a barrier, but on occasions of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar importance the public was excluded . The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable to meet more than three or four times a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month; the council, on Prytanels. the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, was in continuous session, except on feast days . It was impossible that the Five Hundred should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate the despatch of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, probably by Cleisthenes . By this system the year was divided into ten equal periods . During each of these periods the council was represented by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who acted as a committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the year . Each of these committees was led by a See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president (Epi- states), who acted as chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also, and a third of its numbers lived permanently during their See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of office in the See also:

• THOLOS (Bo11os)

Tholos (See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

Dome) or Skias, a See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• BUILDING

building where they (with certain other officials and honoured citizens) dined at the public expense . In 378–377 B.C . (or perhaps in the archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the Ecclesia was transferred to the Epistates of the Proedri, the Proedri being a body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the Prytaneis from the remaining nine tribes . It was the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the Boule (i.e. the Prytany which was for the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in session) to prepare all business for the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the Ecclesia . Their recom- mendation (srpof3oi,Xev,ua) was presented to the popular assembly (for See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, see ECCLESIA), which either passed it as it stood or made amendments subject to certain conditions . It must be clearly understood that the recommendation of the council had no See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic force until by the votes of the Ecclesia it passed into See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law as a psephism .

But in addition to this function, the Council of the Five Hundred had large administrative and judicial control . (I) It was before the council that the Poletae arranged the farming of public revenues, the See also:

• RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta, participle of recipere, to receive)

receipt of tenders for public See also:

• WORKS

works and the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of confiscated See also:

• PROPERTY

property; further, it dealt with defaulting collectors (isXh ' es), exacted the debts of private persons to the state, and probably See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up See also:

• ANNUAL

annual estimates . (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the Apodectae (" Receivers ") and the " Treasurers of the See also:

• GOD

God." (3) From See also:

• DEMOSTHENES

Demosthenes (In Androt.) it is clear that it had to arrange for the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of so many triremes per annum and ' The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed to See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles although we have no See also:

• DIRECT

direct evidence of it before 411 B . C . (Thuc. viii . 6g; see PERIcLEs).the See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award of the trierarchic See also:

• CROWN

crown . (4) It arranged for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry and the special levies from the demes . (5) It heard certain cases of eisangelia (See also:

• IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. empeahement, empeschement, from em pecher or empescher, to hinder, Late Lat. impedicare, to entangle, pedica, fetter, pes, foot)

impeachment) and had the right to See also:

• FINE

fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case over to the Heliaea . The cases which it tried were mainly prosecutions for crimes against the state (e.g. See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason, See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy, See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

bribery) . In later times it acted mainly as a See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of first instance . Subsequently (Alf . Pol. c .

45) its powers were limited and an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal was allowed to the popular courts . (6) The council presided over the dokimasia (consideration of fitness) of the magistrates ; this examination, which was originally concerned with a See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate's moral and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical fitness, de-generated into a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere inquiry into his politics . (7) In See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign affairs the council as the only body in permanent session naturally received foreign envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia . Further, the Boule, with the Strategi (" Generals "), took treaty oaths, after the Ecclesia had decided on the terms . The Xenophontic Politeia states that the council of the 5th century was " concerned with See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war," but in the 4th century it chiefly supervised the docks and the See also:

• FLEET

fleet . On two occasions at least the council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes (De Fals . See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

Leg. p . 389) states that the people gave it full powers to send ambassadors to See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip, and See also:

• ANDOCIDES

Andocides (De Myst . 14 foll.) states that it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation of the See also:

• HERMAE

Hermae on the See also:

• NIGHT

night before the sailing of the Sicilian Expedition . It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely essential to the working of the Athenian state . Without having any final legislative authority, it was a necessary part of the legislative machinery, and it may be regarded as certain that a large proportion of its recommendations were passed without alteration or even discussion by the Ecclesia . The Boule was, therefore, in the strict sense a committee of the Ecclesia, and was immediately connected with a system of sub-committees which exercised executive functions .