BREAD  , the name given to the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food-product prepared by the See also:

• BAKING

baking of See also:

• FLOUR

flour . The word itself, O . Eng. bread, is See also:

• COMMON

common in various forms to many See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages; cf . Ger . Brot, Dutch, brood, and Swed. and See also:

• DAN

Dan. brot; it has been derived from the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of " brew," but more probably is connected with the root of " break," for its See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early uses are confined to " broken pieces, or bits " of bread, the See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• FRUSTUM (Latin for a " piece broken off ")

frustum, and it was not till the 12th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century that it took the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, as the generic name of bread, of hlaf, " See also:

• LOAF

loaf," which appears to be the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest Teutonic name, cf . Old High Ger. hleib, and See also:

• MODERN

modern Ger . Laib . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—Bread-baking, or at any See also:

• RATE

rate the preparation of cakes from flour or parched See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain by means of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, is one of the most See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient of human arts . At Wangen and Robenhausen have been found the calcined remains of cakes made from coarsely-ground grain in Swiss See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake-dwellings that date back to the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age . The cakes were made of different kinds of grain, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and one-grained See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat (Triticum monococcum) being among the ingredients . This bread was made, not from See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• MEAL

meal, but from grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and in these lake-dwellings many See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round-shaped stones have been found, which were evidently used for pounding or crushing grain against the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, more or less See also:

• CONCAVE

concave, of another stone (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE) . Perhaps the earliest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from acorns and See also:

• BEECH

beech nuts .

To this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day a sort of cake prepared from crushed acorns is eaten by the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians of the Pacific slopes . The flour extracted from acorns is See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter and unfit to eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in boiling See also:

• WATER

water . The saturated flour is squeezed into a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of cake and dried in the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny speaks of a similar crude See also:

• PROCESS

process in connexion with wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed remnant, soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and dried in the sun . See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil (Georgics, i . 267) refers to the See also:

• HUSBAND

husband-See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man first torrefying and then crushing his grain between stones:—" Nunc torrete igni fruges, nuns frangite saxo." The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers See also:

• BAKE, JAN (1787-1864)

bake their cakes of bruised grain ? Probably the dough was laid on a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat or See also:

• CONVEX

convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake was covered with hot ashes . Stones have been found among prehistoric remains which were apparently used for this purpose . In ancient See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian tombs cakes of See also:

• DURRA
• DURRA (also written dourah, dhura, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a grain of corn)

durra have been found, of concave shape, suggesting the use of such baking-slabs; here the cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked grain . In See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive times milling and baking were twin arts . The See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-wife, and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the grain and prepared the bread or cakes . When See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham entertained the angels unawares (See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife Sarah " make ready quickly three See also:

• MEASURES

measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the See also:

• HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor ")

hearth." See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846– )

Maspero says that an See also:

• OVEN (O. Eng. of n,Ger. Ofen, cf. Gr. Irvin, oven)

oven for baking bread was to be found in the courtyard of every house in See also:

• CHALDAEA

Chaldaea; See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close by were kept the grinding stones .

That bread prepared by means of See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven was known in the days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the passage in Genesis iii., where it is said of See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

Lot that he " made a feast, and did bake unleavened bread." Whether the shewbread of the Jewish See also:

• TABERNACLE
• TABERNACLE (Lat. tabernaculum, a hut, tent)

tabernacle was leavened is an open question, but it is significant that the See also:

• PASSOVER

Passover cakes eaten by See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews to-day, known as Matzos, are See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent of leaven . Made from flour and water only, they are about 12 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, and have somewhat the look of water biscuits . The ancient Egyptians carried the See also:

• ART

art of baking to high perfection . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus remarks of them, " dough they knead with their feet, but See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay with their hands." The practice of using the feet for dough kneading, however repulsive, See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long persisted in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, if indeed it is yet defunct . The Egyptians used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and durra (See also:

• SORGHUM

sorghum) . In the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of Dr See also:

• WALLIS, JOHN (1616-1703)

Wallis Budge, barley was in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt the grain of most primitive culture . However that may be, it is certain that even in ancient Egypt See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white bread made from wheat was used by the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich . The form of the bread is revealed by ancient monuments . A common shape was a small, round loaf, something like the muffin of to-day . Other loaves were elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top with seeds like modern See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna bread . The history of baking in classical See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy can be clearly traced . See also:

• ATHENAEUS

Athenaeus in his Deipnosophists minutely describes many different kinds of bread, which may be assumed to have been currently used in Greece .

According to Pliny (Nat . Hist. xviii . 11 . § 28) See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome had no public bakers till after the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with See also:

• PERSEUS

Perseus (171–168 B.C.) . That long after public bakehouses came into use the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans and other See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban dwellers in Italy continued to make a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DEAL

deal of bread at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home is certain . In See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii several private houses had their own See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill and bakehouse . That See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city must also have possessed bakers by See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, as loaves of bread have been found, round in form, and stamped with the maker's name, possibly to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix responsibility for See also:

• WEIGHT

weight and purity . In the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic, public bakehouses were under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the aediles . Grain was delivered to the public See also:

• GRANARIES

granaries by the Saccarii, while another See also:

• BODY

body called Catabolenses distributed the grain to the bakers . The latter were known as Pistores or " pounders," a See also:

• REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember)

reminiscence no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a pestle in a See also:

• MORTAR

mortar . Slaves were largely employed in the irksome See also:

• WORK

work of grinding, and when See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine abolished See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery the See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff of the pistrinae was largely recruited from criminals . The See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan incorporated about A.D .

100 the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of Pistores (millers and bakers), but its members were employers, not operatives . The work of a bakery is depicted in a set of bas-reliefs on the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of a See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master Pistor named Eurysaces, who flourished about a century before the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the college . Here the grain is being brought and paid for; See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills driven by See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass (or See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule) See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power are busy; men are sieving out the See also:

• BRAN

bran from the flour by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand (bolters); bakers are moulding loaves on a See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board; an oven of domelike shape is being charged by means of a See also:

• SHOVEL (O.E. scoff, from root of scufan, to shove, push, cf. Ger. Schaufel, also Schiippe, scoop)
• SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY [or CLOWDISLEY SHOVELL as he seems to have spelt the name himself] (c. 1650-1707)

shovel (See also:

• PEEL
• PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, 1ST VISCOUNT (1829- )
• PEEL, SIR ROBERT, BART

peel); and baskets of bread are being weighed on the one hand and carried off on men's backs on the other . Regulation of See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

Sale.—In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages bakers were subjected to See also:

• SPECIAL

special regulations in all See also:

• EUROPEAN

European lands . These regulations were supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, and no doubt were intended to secure See also:

• FAIR

fair dealing on the See also:

• PART

part of bread vendors . The legislators appear, however, to have been unduly biased against the See also:

• BAKER, HENRY (1698-1774)
• BAKER, SIR BENJAMIN (1840-1907)
• BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1644/5)
• BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893)
• BAKER, THOMAS (1656-1740)
• BAKER, VALENTINE [BAKER PASHA] (1827-1887)

baker, who was often besetby harassing restrictions . Bakers were formed into See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds, which were under the control, not only of their own officials, but of the See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality . In See also:

• LONDON

London the bakers formed a brotherhood as early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307 . There were two distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the See also:

• COMPANY

Company of White Bakers and the Company of See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown Bakers; these were nominally See also:

• UNITED

united in 1509, but the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union did not become See also:

• COMPLETE

complete till the middle of the 17th century . In See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, bakers who offended against See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police regulations respecting the sale of bread were liable, until comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent times, to fine, imprisonment and even See also:

• CORPORAL

corporal See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment . In See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey the lot of the baker was very hard . See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron de Tott, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople in the 18th century, says that it was usual, when bread went to See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine prices, to hang a baker or two .

He would have us believe that it was the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of master bakers to keep a second hand, who, in See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of a small increase of his weekly wage, was willing to appear before the See also:

• CADI (g¢di)

cadi in See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case a victim were wanted . A barbarous punishment, inflicted in Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who sold See also:

• LIGHT

light or adulterated bread, consisted in nailing the See also:

• CULPRIT

culprit by his See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear to the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door-See also:

• POST

post of his See also:

• SHOP

shop . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of 1863 relieved bakers from many of the restrictions under which they previously suffered, 'wt it did not See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the municipalities to regulate the quality and sale of bread . It See also:

• LEFT

left them the right conferredin 1791, to enforce the taxe du See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain, the See also:

• OBJECT

object of which was to prevent bakers from increasing the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of bread beyond a point justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was exercised on their own responsibility, subject to See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to higher authorities, and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited to abolish this taxe ofjIcielle . In places where it exists it is fixed every See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week or fortnight, according to the See also:

• AVERAGE

average price of grain in the See also:

• LOCAL

local markets . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament was passed in 1266 for regulating the price of bread by a public See also:

• ASSIZE

assize, and that See also:

• SYSTEM

system continued in operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London, and till 1836 for the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The price of bread was determined by adding a certain sum to the price of every See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of flour, to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the baker's expenses and profit; and for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were required to bake and sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of other sizes, which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield . The acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and within 10 m. of the Royal See also:

• EXCHANGE

Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836, as to sale of bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange . The acts require that bread shall be sold by weight, and in no other manner, under a See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty not exceeding See also:

• FORTY

forty shillings . This does not, however, mean that a seller is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to sell at any particular weight; the words quartern and See also:

• HALF

half-quartern, though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-lb and 2-lb loaf respectively, have no legal See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction . That is to say, a baker is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 lb or 2; all he has to do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, weigh it, and declare the weight . When bread is sold over the See also:

• COUNTER

counter it is usual for the vendor to cut off and See also:

• TENDER

tender a piece of bread to make up any deficiency in the loaf .

This is known as the " overweight." There is little doubt the somewhat misty wording of the bread acts lends itself to a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good deal of fraudulent dealing . For instance, when bread is sold over the counter, two loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, while the piece of makeweight may not reach an See also:

• OUNCE

ounce . The customer See also:

• SEES

sees the bread put on the scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred does not trouble to verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 lb or some specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the seller, having satisfied the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law by placing the bread on the scales, could be convicted of See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

fraud . The See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision as to selling by weight does not apply to See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy bread and rolls . No exact See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of " fancy bread " has ever been laid down, and it must be largely a question of fact in each particular case . All bakers or sellers of bread must use See also:

• AVOIRDUPOIS

avoirdupois weight, and must provide, in a conspicuous place in the shop, beams, scales and weights, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that all bread there sold may from time to time be weighed in the presence of the purchaser . The penalty for using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not exceeding £5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide beams and scales a sum not exceeding 5 . Also every baker and seller of bread, delivering by See also:

• CART (A.S. crcet, Gaelic cairt; connected with " car ")

cart or other See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance, must be provided with scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the Weights and Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by omission to weigh, unless there has been a See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request on the part of the purchaser . The acts also define precisely what ingredients may be employed in the manufacture of bread, and impose a penalty not exceeding £10 nor less than £5 for the See also:

• ADULTERATION
• ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify)

adulteration of bread . (See further under ADULTERATION.) Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom (See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish burghs this act is replaced by local acts on the sale of bread . These are in all cases of a much more stringent nature, requiring all batch or See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household bread to be stamped with the reputed weight . Any deficiency within a certain time from the withdrawal of the bread from the oven is an offence .

The London See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

County See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council desired to introduce a similar system into the See also:

• AREA

area under their See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction, and promoted a See also:

• BILL

bill to that effect in 1905, but it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell through . The bill was opposed not only by the See also:

• NATIONAL

National Association of Master Bakers, the London Master Bakers' See also:

• PROTECTION

Protection Society, and by the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West End See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan bakers in a body, but also by the Home See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office, which objected to what it termed exceptional legislation . It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely what may and may not be sold as bread . It is laid down in See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section 2 that " it shall and may be lawful . . . to make and sell . . . bread made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, See also:

• RYE

rye, oats, See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat, See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, peas, beans, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice or potatoes, or any of them, and with any (common) See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, pure water, eggs, See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, harm, leaven, See also:

• POTATO
• POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions as they shall think See also:

• FIT

fit, and with no other ingredients or See also:

• MATTER

matter whatsoever." Sanitation of Bakehouses.—The sanitary arrangements of bakehouses in England were first regulated by the Bakehouse Regulation Act 1863, which was repealed and replaced by the Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this act, with various amending acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by the Factory and Workshop Act Igor . By the act of 16o1 a bakehouse is defined as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or See also:

• CONFECTIONERY (from Lat. confectio, conficere, compound)

confectionery, from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived . The act of 1863 placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands of local authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the hands of inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of See also:

• RETAIL

retail bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities . Under the act of Igor the supervision of bakehouses which are " workshops " is carried out by local authorities, and for the purposes of the act every bakehouse is a workshop unless within it, or its close or See also:

• CURTILAGE (Med. Lat. curtilagium, from cortile or cortile, a court or yard, cf. " court ")

curtilage or precincts, See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam, water or other See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical power is used in aid of the manufacturing process carried on there, in which case it is treated as a non-textile factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors . The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1) No water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with the bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse must be See also:

• SEPARATE

separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet; no drain or See also:

• PIPE

pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an opening within the bakehouse . (2) The interior of all bakehouses must be limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods . (3) No place on the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the same See also:

• BUILDING

building may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially constructed to meet the requirements of the act .

(4) No under-ground bakehouse (one of which the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor is more than 3 ft. below the surface of the footway of the adjoining See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street) shall be used unless certified by the See also:

• DISTRICT

district council as suitable for the purpose (see See also:

• REDGRAVE, RICHARD (1804-1888)

Redgrave, Factory Acts; See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans See also:

• AUSTIN
• AUSTIN, ALFRED
• AUSTIN, JOHN (179o-1859)
• AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867)
• AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836)

Austin, Factory Acts) . Bread Stuffs.—As compared with wheat-flour, all other materials used for making bread are of secondary importance . Rye bread is largely consumed in some of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and cakes of See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize meal are eaten in the United States . In See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Europe the meal of various See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet is used, and in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• CHINA

China durra and other cereal grains are baked for food . Of non-cereal flour, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal used for bread-making is buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), extensively employed in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland and the United States . The flour of See also:

• PEASE, EDWARD (1767–1858)

pease, beans and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America the meal of the See also:

• TAPIOCA (a native Brazilian word)

tapioca plant, Jatropha Manihot, is employed . But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used for making vesiculated or fermented bread . A normal See also:

• SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a doublet of " example ")

sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts of moisture, 72 of See also:

• STARCH

starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty matters, and 1.75 % of See also:

• MINERAL

mineral matter . Starch is thus Quality of the predominating component; it is not, however, the flour . dough-forming ingredient . By itself, starch, when saturated with water, forms a See also:

• PUTTY

putty-like See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass devoid of coherence, and it is the See also:

• GLUTEN

gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a more or less elastic body . The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour varies from 7 to 15%, but the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere quantity of gluten is by no means the only See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of the commercial value of the flour, the quality also counting for much .

One of the functions of gluten is•to produce a high or well-piled loaf, and its value for this purpose depends largely on its quality . This is turn depends largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are much richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheatsusually only flourish in certain countries . See also:

• SOIL

Soil and See also:

• CLIMATE

climate are undoubtedly factors in modifying the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of wheat, and necessarily therefore of the flour . The same wheat grown in the same soil will show very varying degrees of strength (i.e. of gluten) in different seasons . For instance, the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western districts of America grow a hard See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring wheat which in a normal See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season is of almost unequalled strength . In 1904 an excess of moisture and deficiency in sun in the Red See also:

• RIVER

River Valley during the See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical months of See also:

• JUNE

June and See also:

• JULY

July caused a serious attack of red and See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust in these wheat See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, the disease being more virulent in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American than the See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the valley . The result was that the quality of the gluten of that season's American spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength being almost gone . Wheat from the Canadian side was also affected, but not nearly to so great an extent . Flour milled from hard See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter wheat in the American winter districts is sometimes nearly as strong as the spring wheat of the North-west . Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also very strong, and so is the flour milled from some south See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian spring wheats . But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to season in a remarkable manner . In the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main each See also:

• LAND

land has its own clearly marked type of wheat .

While the United States, See also:

• CANADA

Canada, See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and Russia are each capable of growing strong wheat, Great Britain, France and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany produce wheat more or less weak . It follows that the bread baked from flour milled from wheat from See also:

• BRITISH

British, See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French or See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German wheat alone would not make a loaf of sufficient See also:

• VOLUME

volume, judged by See also:

• PRESENT

present British See also:

• STANDARDS

standards . As a matter of fact, except in some country districts, British bakers either use strong See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign flour to blend with See also:

• ENGLISH

English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied with flour by British millers milled from a blend in which very often English wheat has a small, or no place at all . If the baker's trade calls for the making of household bread, especially of the London type, he must use a strong flour, with plenty of staple gluten in it, because it is this See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element which supplies the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving or lifting force, without which a high, bold loaf cannot be produced . If the demand is for See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin or (as it is called in many parts of the north of England) See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan bread, a weaker flour will suffice, as the tin will keep it up . A Vienna loaf should be made with at least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which is normally the highest-priced flour in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, though probably the bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no Hungarian flour . A cake of flat shape can be very well made with a rather weak flour, but any cake that is required to present a domed top cannot be prepared without a flour of some strength . It is a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general opinion, though contested by some authorities, that soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh flours . The strong wheats of the American and Canadian North-West make less flavoury flour than Flavour of f/oun soft red winter from the American South-West . It would not, however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are necessarily less full of flavour than weak wheats . Hungarian wheat, for instance, is one of the strongest wheats of the See also:

• WORLD

world, but has a characteristic and pleasant flavour of its own . Indian wheats, on the other hand, are not particularly strong, but are liable to give a rather harsh flavour to the bread .

English, French and German wheats, when harvested in good See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour . None of these wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable meteorological conditions . The Australasian See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent raises white wheat of fine quality which has much See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with British wheat—it is the descendant in many cases of See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed wheats imported from England—but it is occasionally stronger . The resultant flour is noted for its sweetness . Both millers and bakers who are concerned with the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of high-class bread and flour make See also:

• FREE

free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats . The proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small, but millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known as top-price flour are careful to use a certain amount of English wheat, if it is to be had in See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime condition . They See also:

• TERM

term this ingredient of their mixture " See also:

• SUGAR

sugar." London bakers again, with customers who appreciate nicely flavoured bread, will " See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch " into their trough a certain proportion of English country flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from English wheat, which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of strong flour, a patent flour for choice . It has been objected that as English wheat contains a large proportion 4f starch, and as starch is admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason why flour milled from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour than any other starchy wheat flour . Experience, however, has amply proved that well-ripened English wheat produces bread with an agreeable flavour, though it does not follow that all English wheat is under all conditions capable of baking bread of the highest quality . But it would be as fallacious to hold that weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all strong flour is insipid and harsh . Different wheats are undoubtedly possessed of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a pleasing character . In some cases the very See also:

• REVERSE

reverse is true .

Californian and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due to the presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable flavour to the resultant bread . While the essential character of particular wheats will See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for a good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread made from them, the baking process must also be responsible to some extent for flavour . The temperature of the oven and the degree of See also:

• FERMENTATION

fermentation must be factors in the question . It has been asserted that the same flour will bake into bread of very different flavour according as the fermentation is carried out slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or the reverse . A high temperature seems to have the effect of quickly See also:

• DRAWING

drawing out the subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread, but it is a question whether they are not subsequently rapidly volatilized and partially or wholly lost . The rapid formation of a solid crust is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences . A moist, or " slack," sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favour-able to the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such conditions the yeast, having more See also:

• ROOM