BREMEN  , a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of Bremen, and one of the Hanseatic towns . It lies on a sandy See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain on both See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• WESER (O. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis)

Weser, 46 m. from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and 71 m . S.W. from See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg by See also:

• RAIL

rail, on the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• LINE

line to See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne . Pop . (1905) 214,953 . It has also See also:

• DIRECT

direct railway communication with See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin via See also:

• UELZEN

Uelzen, See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover and See also:

• BREMERHAVEN

Bremerhaven . The city consists of four quarters,—the old See also:

• TOWN

town (Altstadt) and its suburban extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• RIVER

river, and the new town (See also:

• NEUSTADT (Polish, Prudnik)

Neustadt) with its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern suburb (Siidervorstadt) on the See also:

• LEFT

left bank . The river is crossed by three See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, the old, the new (1872–1875) Kaiserbriicke, and the railway See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge, with a gangway for See also:

• FOOT

foot passengers . The ramparts of the old town have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been converted into beautiful promenades and gardens, the moats forming a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of lakes . The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes, flanked by massive gabled houses, See also:

• DATES

dates from the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval days of Hanseatic prosperity . On the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market square stands the See also:

• FINE

fine town See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall (Rathaus), dating from the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, with a See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-some See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance See also:

• FACADE

facade of a somewhat later date, and before it a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone statue of See also:

• ROLAND
• ROLAND, LEGEND OF

Roland, the See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem of civic See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . Its celebrated underground See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine cellar has been immortalized by Wilhelm See also:

• HAUFF, WILHELM (1802–1827)

Hauff in his Phantasien See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im See also:

• BREMER, FREDRIKA (r8or–1865)

Bremer Ratskeller .

The town hall is internally richly embellished and has a See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery of interesting paintings . In an upper hall a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of an old Hanseatic See also:

• FRIGATE

frigate, with the See also:

• DEVICE

device Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse, hangs from the See also:

• CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel, Lat. caelum, sky)

ceiling . Among other See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient buildings, situated chiefly in the old town, are the following: the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral of St See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter (formerly the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church), erected in the 12th century on the site of See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne's wooden church, and famous for its Bleikeller, or See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a long See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time without suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius, built about 1243, with a See also:

• SPIRE

spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque church of St See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen; the Schiitting, or merchants' hall, origin-ally built in 1619 for the See also:

• CLOTH

cloth-traders' gild; the Stadthaus (town See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house), formerly the archiepiscopal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, and converted to its See also:

• PRESENT

present uses only in 1819 . The most important and imposing among the more See also:

• MODERN

modern architectural additions to the city are the handsome See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange, completed in 1867, the municipal See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, the municipal library, the See also:

• POST

post See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office (1878), the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law courts (1891–1895), the See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool exchange, the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German bank, the municipal museum for natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, and the fine railway station (1888) . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal memorials embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain (1883), the See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of the Franco-German See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War (erected 1875), the centaur fountain (1891), an equestrian statue of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William I . (1893), and a statue of the poet Theodor Korner . A beautiful See also:

• PARK (Fr. part; Ital. parco; Sp. Marque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish)
• PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900)
• PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?)

park, Burgerpark, has been laid out in the Burgerweide, or meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the city . It is a peculiarity of the domestic See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of Bremen that the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the houses, unlike the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom in most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by a single See also:

• FAMILY

family only . The See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable variety and extent, but are more particularly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in such branches as are closely allied to See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, such as See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding, See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding, See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine-See also:

• BUILDING

building and rope-making . Next in importance come those of See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.)

snuff, cigars, the making of See also:

• CIGAR

cigar boxes, jute-See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning, distilling, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar refining and the shelling of See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice . Bremen owes its fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, mainly imports . By the completion of the See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering See also:

• WORKS

works on the Weser in 1887–1899, whereby, among other improvements, the river was straightened and deepened. to 18 ft., large ocean-going vessels are able to See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam right up to the city itself .

It has excellent railway connexions with the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial districts of Germany . Like Hamburg, it does pre-dominantly a transit trade; it is especially important as the importer of raw products from See also:

• AMERICA

America . In two articles, tobacco and rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the See also:

• WORLD

world; in See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton and See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo it takes the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, and it is a serious See also:

• RIVAL

rival of Hamburg and See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp in the import of wool and See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum . The value of the See also:

• TOTAL

total imports (both sea-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne and by river and rail) increased from £22i721,700 in 1883 to about £6o,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the See also:

• UNITED

United States, from .£9,755,000 in 1883 to about £25,000,000 in 1905 . The countries from which imports principally come are the United States, See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, Germany, See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, the republics of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South America, the Far East and See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia . The exports See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from a total of £26,096,500 in 1883 to £62,000,000 in 1905 . The number of vessels which entered the ports of the free state (i.e . Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased from 2869 of 1,258,529 aggregate See also:

• TONNAGE

tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633 tons in 1900 . Bremen is the centre for some of the more important of the German See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping companies, especially of the North German See also:

• LLOYD, EDWARD (1845— )
• LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627–1717)
• LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813–1893)

Lloyd (founded in 1856), which, on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1905, possessed a See also:

• FLEET

fleet of 382 steamers of 693,892 tons, besides lighters and similar See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . Bremen also shares with Hamburg the position of being one of the two chief See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration ports of Germany . There are three docks, all to the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the city—namely, the free See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour (which was opened in 1888), the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter harbour, and the See also:

• TIMBER

timber and industrial harbour . See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal communication is served by an excellent See also:

• SYSTEM

system of electric tramways, and there is also a See also:

• LOCAL

local steamboat service with neighbouring villages on the Weser .

See also:

• HISTORY

History.—According to See also:

• BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842– )

Brandes, quoting See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther in the See also:

• LEXICON

Lexicon Philologicum, the name is derived from Bram, Bram, i.e. hem = the river-bank, or confine of the See also:

• LAND

land on which it was built . In 787 Bremen was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne had established as See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop in the pagi of the See also:

• LOWER

lower Weser, as his see . In 848 the destruction of Hamburg by the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see of Hamburg to Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen . In 965 the emperor See also:

• OTTO

Otto I. granted to See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop Adaldag " in the place called Bremen " (in loco Bremun nuncupato) the right to establish a market, and the full administrative, fiscal and judicial See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of a See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count, no one but the bishop or his advocatus being allowed to exercise authority in the city . This See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege, by which the archbishop was See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord of the city and his See also:

• VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895)

Vogt its See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge, was frequently confirmed by subsequent emperors, ending under See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick I. in 1158 . Though, however, there is no direct See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the existence of any communal organization during this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, it is clear from the vigorous See also:

• PART

part taken by the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion of See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony that some such organization very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early existed . Yet in the privilegium granted to the townspeople by Frederick I. in 1186 the emperor had done no more than See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee them their See also:

• PERSONAL

personal liberties . The earliest recognition of any civic organization they may have possessed they owed to Archbishop Hartwig II . (1184–1207), who had succeeded in uniting against him his See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter, the nobles and the citizens; and the first mention of the city See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council occurs in a See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter of See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

Arch-bishop See also:

• GERHARD
• GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867)

Gerhard II. in 1225, though the consules here named doubtless represented a considerably older institution . In the 13th century, however, whatever the civic organization of the townsfolk may have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the archbishop and his Vogt; the council could issue regulations only with the consent of the former, while in the judicial See also:

• WORK

work of the latter, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save . in small questions of commercial dishonesty, its See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• FUNCTION

function was advisory . By the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 14th century this situation was exactly reversed; the elected town council was the supreme legislative power in all criminal and See also:

• CIVIL

civil causes, and in the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of the advocatus two Ratsmanner sat as assessors . The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a fresh peril had developed in the course of the 13th century in the growth of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities, threatened to absorb all power into the hands of a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy .

In 1304 the commonalty rose against the See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians and drove them from the city, and in the following See also:

• YEAR

year gained a victory over the exiles and their See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual service of thanksgiving . This was the beginning of troubles that lasted intermittently throughout the century . Bremen had been admitted to the Hanseatic See also:

• LEAGUE

league in 1283, but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted until 1358 . Owing to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in 1427, and only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution was definitively restored . But though in Bremen the efforts of the craftsmen's " arts " to secure a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of power had been held in check and the See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds never gained any importance, the city See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government did not, as at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into a close patrician oligarchy . Power was in the hands of the wealthy, but the avenues to power were open to those who knew how to acquire the necessary qualification . There was thus no artificial See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly developed in See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . The See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by Heinrich von See also:

• ZUTPHEN, or ZUTFEN

Zutphen . Archbishop See also:

• CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick-See also:

• WOLFENBUTTEL

Wolfenbuttel (1487–1558), a brutal libertine, hated for his lusts and avarice, looked on the reforming See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement as a revolt against himself . He succeeded in getting the reformer burned; but found himself involved in a See also:

• LIFE

life and See also:

• DEATH

death struggle with the city . In 1532 Bremen joined the league of See also:

• SCHMALKALDEN

Schmalkalden, and twice endured a See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege by the imperial forces . In 1547 it was only saved by See also:

• MANSFELD

Mansfeld's victory at Drakenburg .

Archbishop Christopher was succeeded in 1558 by his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Georg, bishop of See also:

• MINDEN

Minden (d . 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing the reformed model into his other See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of See also:

• VERDEN

Verden, is reckoned as the last See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic archbishop of Bremen . His successor, Henry III . (1550-'1585), a son of See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

Duke See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis I. of See also:

• LAUENBURG

Lauenburg, who had been bishop of See also:

• OSNABRUCK

Osnabruck and See also:

• PADERBORN (Lat. Paderae Fontes, i.e. the springs of the Pader)

Paderborn, was a Lutheran and married . Protestantism was not, however, definitively proclaimed as the state See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion in Bremen until 1618 . The last archbishop, Frederick II . (of See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark), was deposed by the Swedes in 1644 . In 1646 Bremen received the privileges of a free imperial city from the emperor See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand III.; but See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, whose See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the archbishopric was recognized two years later, refused to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted vainly to assert her claims over the city by arms—in the so-called Bremen War . When, however, in 1720 the elector of Hanover (See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George I. of See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain) acquired the archbishopric, he recognized Bremen as a free city . In 1803 this was again recognized and the territory of the city was even extended . In 1806 it was taken by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, was subsequently annexed by See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon to his See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and from 18ro to 1813 was the capital of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the Mouths of the Weser . Restored to See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence by the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna in 1815, it subsequently became a member of the German See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation, and in 1867 joined the new North German Confederation, with which it was merged in the new German empire .

See Buchenau, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die freie Hansestadt Bremen (3rd ed., Bremen, 1900, 5 vols.) ; Bremisches Urkundenbuch, edited by R . Ehmck and W. von Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, Geschichte der Stadt Bremen (Bremen, 1892–1898) ; F . Donandt, Versuch einer Geschichte See also:

• DES

des bremischen Stadtrechts (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.) ; Bremisches Jahrbuch (See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical, 19 vols., 1864–1900) ; and Karl See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel, Stadee and Gilden, vol. ii. p . 461 (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1891) .