BUDDHISM  , the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion held by the followers of the See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha (q.v.), and covering a large See also:

• AREA

area in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and central See also:

• ASIA

Asia . Essential Doctrines.—We are fortunate in having preserved for us the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of the Buddha's discourse, in which he ex-pounded what he considered the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main features of his See also:

• SYSTEM

system to the five men he first tried to win over to his new-found faith . There is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt its substantial accuracy, not as to words, but as to purport . In any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it is what the compilers of,the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest extant documents believed their teacher to have regarded as the most important points in his teaching . Such a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary must be better than any that could now be made . It is incorporated into two divisions of their sacred books, first among the sulks containing the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine, and again in the rules of the society or See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order he founded (Samyutta, v . 421= Vinaya, i. to) The gist of it, omitting a few repetitions, is as follows: " There are two aims which he who has given up the See also:

• WORLD

world ought not to follow after— devotion, on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, to those things whose attractions depend upon the passions, a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan ideal, See also:

• FIT

fit only for the worldly-minded, ignoble, unprofitable, and the practice on the other hand of See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable . There is a See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata 1—a path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, to insight, to the higher See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom, to See also:

• NIRVANA

Nirvana . Verily! it is this See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

Noble Eightfold Path; that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture . Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering . See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

Birth is attended with See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, See also:

• DEATH

death is painful . See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; and any craving unsatisfied, that too is painful .

In brief, the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of individuality) are painful . " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering . Verily! it is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction now here, now there—that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the senses, or the craving for a future See also:

• LIFE

life, or the craving for prosperity . I That is by the Arahat, the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title the Buddha always uses of himself . He does not See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as such . " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of pain . Verily! it is the passing away so that no See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion remains, the giving up, the getting rid of, the being emancipated from, the harbouring no longer of this craving thirst . " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing away of pain . Verily ! it is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right speech, conduct and mode of livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Rapture." A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the See also:

• SPEAKER

speaker claimed to have grasped each of these Four Truths . That is all . There is not a word about See also:

• GOD

God or the soul, not a word about the Buddha or Buddhism . It seems See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, almost jejune; so thin and weak that one wonders how it can have formed the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for a system so mighty in its See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical results .

But the simple words are pregnant with meaning . Their implications were clear enough to the hearers to whom they were addressed . They were not intended, however, to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer the questionings of a 2othcentury See also:

• EUROPEAN

European questioner, and are liable now to be misunderstood . Fortunately each word, each clause, each See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea in the discourse is repeated, commented on, enlarged upon, almost ad nauseam, in the suites, and a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short comment in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of those explanations may bring out the meaning that was meant.' The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an emancipation . And the Buddha is elsewhere (Vinaya ii . 239) made to declare: " Just as the See also:

• GREAT

great ocean has one See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste only, the taste of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, just so have this doctrine and discipline but one flavour only, the flavour of emancipation "; and again, " When a See also:

• BROTHER

brother has, by himself, known and realized, and continues to abide, here in this visible world, in that emancipation of mind, in that emancipation of See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, which is Arahatship; that is a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition higher still and sweeter still, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of which the brethren See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the religious life under me." 2 The emancipation is found in a See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of mind, in the being See also:

• FREE

free from a specified sort of craving that is said to be the origin of certain specified sorts of pain . In some European books this is completely spoiled by being represented as the doctrine that existence is misery, and that See also:

• DESIRE

desire is to be suppressed . Nothing of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind is said in the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text . The description of suffering or pain is, in fact, a See also:

• STRING

string of truisms, quite See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain and indisputable until the last clause . That clause declares that the Upadana Skandhas, the five See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of the constituent parts of every individual, involve pain . Put into modem See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language this is that the conditions necessary to make an individual are also the conditions that necessarily give rise to sorrow . No sooner has an individual become See also:

• SEPARATE

separate, become an individual, than disease and decay begin to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act upon it .

Individuality involves See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation, limitation in its turn involves See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance, and ignorance is the source of sorrow . Union with the unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, unsatisfied craving, are each a result of individuality . This is a deeper generalization than that which says, " A See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born to trouble as the See also:

• SPARKS, JARED (1789-1866)

sparks See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly upward." But it is put forward as a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere statement of fact . And the previous See also:

• HISTORY

history of religious belief in India would tend to show that emphasis was laid on the fact, less as an explanation of the origin of evil, than as a protest against a then current pessimistic idea that salvation could not be reached on See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and must therefore be sought for in a rebirth in See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, in the Brahmaloka . For if the fact—the fact that the conditions of individuality are the conditions, also, of pain—were admitted, then the individual there would still not have escaped from sorrow . If the five ascetics to whom the words were addressed once admitted this implication, See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic would drive them also to admit all that followed . The threefold See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of craving at the end of the second truth might be rendered " the lust of the flesh, the lust of life and the love of this See also:

• PRESENT

present world." The two last are said else-where to be directed against two sets of thinkers called the Eternalists and the Annihilationists, who held respectively One very See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved in three places in the See also:

• CANON

canon: Digha, ii . 305-307 and 311-313, Majjhima, in . 251, and Samyutta, v . 8 . 2 Mahali Suttanta; translated in Rhys Davids' Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. i. p . 201 (cf. p .

204).the See also:

• EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE

everlasting-life-See also:

• HERESY

heresy and the let-us-eat-and-drink-for-tomorrow-we-See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die-heresy.' This may be so, but in any case the division of craving would have appealed to the five hearers as correct . The word translated " noble " in Noble Path, Noble Truth, is ariye, which also means See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan.' The negative, un-Aryan, is used of each of the two low aims . It is possible that this rendering should have been introduced into the See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation; but the ethical meaning, though still associated with the tribal meaning, had probably already become predominant in the language of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . The details of the Path include several terms whose meaning and implication are by no means apparent at first sight . Right Views, for instance, means mainly right views as to the Four Truths and the Three Signs . Of the latter, one is identical, or nearly so, with the First Truth . The others are Impermanence and Non-soul (the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a soul)—both declared to be " signs " of every individual, whether god, See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal or man . Of these two again the Impermanence has become an See also:

• INDIAN

Indian rather than a Buddhist idea, and we are to a certain extent See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with it also in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West . There is no Being, there is only a Becoming . The See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of every individual is unstable, temporary, sure to pass away . Even in the lowest class of things, we find, in each individual, See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form and material qualities . In the higher classes there is a continually rising See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• MENTAL

mental qualities also .

It is the union of these that makes the individual . Every See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, or thing, or god, is therefore a putting together, a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound; and in each individual, without any exception, the relation of its component parts is ever changing, is never the same for two consecutive moments . It follows that no sooner has separateness, individuality, begun, than See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution, disintegration, also begins . There can be no individuality without a putting together: there can be no putting together without a becoming: there can be no becoming without a becoming different: and there can be no becoming different without a dissolution, a passing away, which sooner or later will inevitably be See also:

• COMPLETE

complete . Heracleitus, who was a See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation or two later than the Buddha, had very similar ideas;' and similar ideas are found in See also:

• POST

post-Buddhistic Indian See also:

• WORKS

works.2 But in neither case are they worked out in the same uncompromising way . Both in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and in all Indian thought except the Buddhist, souls, and the gods who are made in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of souls; are considered as exceptions . To these See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits is attributed a Being without Becoming, an individuality without See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, a beginning with-out an end . To hold any such view would, according to the doctrine of the Noble (or Aryan) Path, be erroneous, and the See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error would See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block the way against the very entrance on the Path . So important is this position in Buddhism that it is put in the forefront of Buddhist expositions of Buddhism . The Buddha himself is stated in the books to have devoted to it the very first discourse he addressed to the first converts.' The first in the collection of the Dialogues of Gotama discusses, and completely, categorically,•and systematically rejects, all the current theories about " souls." Later books follow these precedents . Thus the See also:

• KATHA

Katha Vatthu, the latest See also:

• BOOK

book included in the canon, discusses points of disagreement that had arisen in the community . It places this question of " soul " at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of all the points it deals with, and devotes to it an amount of space quite over-shadowing all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest.$ So also in the earliest Buddhist book later than the canon—the very interesting and suggestive series of conversations between the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king See also:

• MENANDER
• MENANDER (342–291 B.C.)
• MENANDER (MILINDA)

Menander and the Buddhist teacher Nagasena .

It is precisely this question of the " soul " that the unknown author takes up first, describing how Nagasena convinces the king that there is no such thing as the 3 See Iti-vuttaka, p . 44; Samyutta, iii . 57 . ' See Digha, ii . 28 ; Jat. v . 48, ii . 80 . See also:

• BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON (1849– )

Burnett, See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Greek See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy, p . 149 . Katha Up . 2, 10; Bhag . Gta, 2, 14; 9, 33 .

The Anatta-lakkhana See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

Suite (Vinaya, i . 13 = Samyutta, iii . 66 and iv . 34), translated in Vinaya Texts, i . 100-102 . 8 See See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on " Buddhist See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the J.R.A.S. for 1892 . " soul " in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary sense, and he returns to the subject again and again.' After Right Views come Right Aspirations . It is evil desires, low ideals, useless cravings, idle excitements, that are to be sup-pressed by the cultivation of the opposite—of right desires, lofty aspirations . In one of the Dialogues2 instances are given—the desire for emancipation from sensuality, aspirations towards the attainment of love to others, the wish not to injure any living thing, the desire for the eradication of wrong and for the See also:

• PRO

pro-See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of right dispositions in one's own heart, and so on . This portion of the Path is indeed quite simple, and would require no commentary were it not for the still constantly repeated blunder that Buddhism teaches the suppression of all desire . Of the remaining stages of the Path it is only necessary to mention two . The one is Right Effort .

A See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant intellectual alertness is required . This is not only insisted upon elsewhere in countless passages, but of the three See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal sins in Buddhism (raga, dosa, moha) the last and worst is stupidity or dullness, the others being sensuality and See also:

• ILL

ill-will . Right Effort is closely connected with the seventh See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, Right Mindfulness . Two of the dialogues are devoted to this subject, and it is constantly referred to elsewhere.3 The See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple, whatsoever he does—whether going forth or coming back, See also:

• STANDING

standing or walking, speaking or silent, eating or drinking—is to keep clearly in mind all that it means, the temporary See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the act, its ethical significance, and above all that behind the act there is no actor (goer, seer, eater, speaker) that is an eternally persistent unity . It is the Buddhist analogue to the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept: " Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of God." Under the head of Right Conduct the two most important points are Love and Joy . Love is in See also:

• PALI

Pali See also:

• META

Meta, and the Metta Sutta4 says (no doubt with reference to the Right Mindfulness just described): " As a See also:

• MOTHER

mother, even at the See also:

• RISK

risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let him cultivate love without measure towards all beings . Let him cultivate towards the whole world—above, below, around—a heart of love unstinted, unmixed with the sense of differing or opposing interests . Let a man maintain this mindfulness all the while he is awake, whether he be standing, walking, sitting or lying down . This state of heart is the best in the world." Often elsewhere four such states are described, the Brahma Viharas or See also:

• SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

Sublime Conditions . They are Love, Sorrow at the sorrows of others, Joy in the joys of others, and Equanimity as regards one's own joys and sorrows.s Each of these feelings was to be deliberately practised, beginning with a single See also:

• OBJECT

object, and gradually increasing till the whole world was suffused with the feeling . " Our mind shall not waver . No evil speech will we utter .

See also:

• TENDER

Tender and compassionate will we abide, loving in heart, void of malice within . And we will be ever suffusing such a one with the rays of our loving thought . And with that feeling as a basis we'will ever be suffusing the whole wide world with thought of love far-reaching, grown great, beyond measure, void of anger or ill-will." B The relative importance of love, as compared with other habits, is thus described . " All the means that can be used as bases for doing right are not See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth the sixteenth See also:

• PART

part of the emancipation of the heart through love . That takes all those up into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory . Just as whatsoever stars there be, their radiance avails not the sixteenth part of the radiance of the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon . That takes all those up into itself, outshining them in radiance and glory—just as in the last See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month of the rains, at See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest time, the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, mounting up on high into the clear and cloudless See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky, overwhelms all darkness in the realms ' Questions of King Milinda, translated by Rhys Davids (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1890-1894), vol. i. pp . 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp . 21-25, 86-89 . 2 Majjhima, iii . 251, cf . Samyutta, v .

8 . 3 Digha, ii . 290-315 . Majjhima, i . 55 et seq . Cf . Rhys Davids' Dialogues of the Buddha, i . 81 . 4 No . 8 in the Sutta Nipata (p . 26 of Fausboll's edition) . It is translated by Fausboll in vol. x. of the S.B.E.. and by Rhvs Davids, Buddhism, p .

109 . Digha, ii . 186-187 . 4 Majjhima, i . 129.of space, and shines forth in radiance and glory—just as in the See also:

• NIGHT

night, when the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn is breaking, the See also:

• MORNING

morning See also:

• STAR

star shines out in radiance and glory—just so all the means that can be used as See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps towards doing right avail not the sixteenth part of the emancipation of the heart through love." 7 The above is the See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side; the qualities (dhamma) that have to be acquired . The negative side, the qualities that have to be suppressed by the cultivation of the opposite virtues, are the Ten Bonds (Samyojanas), the Four Intoxications (Asava) and the Five Hindrances (Nivaranas) . The Ten Bonds are: (I) Delusion about the soul; (2) Doubt; (3) Dependence on See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good works; (4) Sensuality; (5) Hatred, ill-feeling; (6) Love of life on earth; (7) Desire for life in heaven; (8) See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

Pride; (9) Self-righteousness; (Io) Ignorance . The Four Intoxications are the mental See also:

• INTOXICATION (Lat. toxicare, intoxicare, to smear with poison, toxicum, an adaptation of Gr. 'r(*uK v, sc. ¢apµasov, a poison smeared on arrows; roEov, bow)

intoxication arising respectively from (1) Bodily passions, (2) Becoming, (3) Delusion, (4) Ignorance . The Five Hindrances are (I) Hankering after worldly advantages, (2) The corruption arising out of the wish to injure, (3) Torpor of mind, (4) Fretfulness and worry, (5) Wavering of mind.$ " When these five hindrances have been cut away from within him, he looks upon himself as freed from See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, rid of disease, out of jail, a free man and secure . And gladness springs up within him on his realizing that, and joy arises to him thus gladdened, and so rejoicing all his See also:

• FRAME

frame becomes at ease, and being thus at ease he is filled with a sense of peace, and in that peace his heart is stayed." 9 To have realized the Truths, and traversed the Path; to have broken the Bonds, put an end to the Intoxications, and got rid of the Hindrances, is to have attained the ideal, the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

Fruit, as it is called, of Arahatship . One might fill columns with the praises, many of them among the most beautiful passages in Pali See also:

• POETRY

poetry and See also:

• PROSE

prose, lavished on this condition of mind, the state of the man made perfect according to the Buddhist faith . Many are the pet names, the poetic epithets bestowed upon it—the See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of See also:

• REFUGE

refuge, the cool See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave, the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island amidst the floods, the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833– )

bliss, emancipation, liberation, safety, the supreme, the transcendent, the uncreated, the tranquil, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of peace, the See also:

• CALM

calm, the end of suffering, the See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine for all evil, the unshaken, the See also:

• AMBROSIA

ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable, the abiding, the farther See also:

• SHORE

shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the supreme joy, the ineffable, the detachment, the See also:

• HOLY

holy See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, and many others .

Perhaps the most frequent in the Buddhist text is Arahatship, " the state of him who is worthy "; and the one exclusively used in Europe is Nirvana, the " dying out "; that is, the dying out in the heart of the See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire of the three cardinal sins—sensuality, ill-will and stupidity 'o The choice of this See also:

• TERM

term by European writers, a choice made See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long before anyof the Buddhist canonical texts had been published or translated, has had a most unfortunate result . Those writers did not See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share, could not be expected to share, the exuberant optimism of the early Buddhists . Themselves giving up this world as hopeless, and looking for salvation in the next, they naturally thought the Buddhists must do the same, and in the absence of any See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic scriptures, to correct the See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake, they interpreted Nirvana, in terms of their own belief, as a state to be reached after death . As such they supposed the " dying out " must mean the dying out of a " soul "; and endless were the discussions as to whether this meant eternal See also:

• TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transitus, from transire, to cross, pass over)

trance, or See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute annihilation, of the " soul." It is now See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years since the right See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation, founded on the canonical texts, has been given, but outside the ranks of Pali scholars the old blunder is still often repeated . It should be added that the belief in salvation in this world, in this life, has appealed so strongly to Indian sympathies that from the time of the rise of Buddhism down to the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day it has been adopted as a part of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general Indian belief, and Jivanmukti, salvation during this life, has become a See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace in the religious language of India . Adopted Doctrines.—The above are the essential doctrines of 7 Iti-vuttaka, pp . 19-2r . 9 On the details of these see Digha, i . 71-73, translated by Rhys Davids in Dialogues of the Buddha, i . 82-84 . 9 Digha, i . 74 .

10 Samyutta, iv . 251, 261 . the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Buddhism . They are at the same time its distinctive doctrines; that is to say, the doctrines that distinguish it from all previous teaching in India . But the Buddha, while rejecting the sacrifices and the ritualistic magic of the brahmin schools, the animistic superstitions of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people, the asceticism and soul-theory of the See also:

• JAINS

Jains, and the pantheistic speculations of the poets of the pre-Buddhistic Upanishads, still retained the belief in transmigration . This belief-the transmigration of the soul, after the death of the See also:

• BODY

body, into other bodies, either of men, beasts or gods—is part of the animistic creed so widely found throughout the world that it was probably universal . In India it had already, before the rise of Buddhism, been raised into an ethical conception by the associated doctrine of See also:

• KARMA

Karma, according to which a man's socialpositioninlife and hisphysicaladvantages, or the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse, were the result of his actions in a previous birth . The doctrine thus afforded an explanation, quite complete to those who believed it, of the apparent anomalies and wrongs in the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution here of happiness or woe . A man, for instance, is See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind . This is owing to his lust of the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye in a previous birth . But he has also unusual See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing . This is because he loved, in a previous birth, to listen to the See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching of the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law .

The explanation could always be exact, for it was scarcely more than a repetition of the point to be explained . It fits the facts because it is derived from them . And it cannot be disproved, for it lies in a See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere beyond the reach of human inquiry . It was because it thus provided a moral cause that it was retained in Buddhism . But as the Buddha did not acknowledge a soul, the See also:

• LINK

link of connexion between one life and the next had to be found somewhere else . The Buddha found it (as See also:

• PLATO

Plato also found it)1 in the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence exercised upon one life by a desire See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in the previous life . When two thinkers of such See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence (probably the two greatest ethical thinkers of antiquity) have arrived independently at this strangeconclusion,have agreed in ascribing to cravings, felt in this life, so great, and to us so inconceivable, a See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power over the future life, we may well hesitate before we condemn the idea as intrinsically absurd, and we may take See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of the important fact that, given similar conditions, similar stages in the development of religious belief, men's thoughts, even in spite of the most unquestioned individual originality, tend though they may never produce exactly the same results, to See also:

• WORK

work in similar ways . In India, before Buddhism, conflicting and contradictory views prevailed as to the precise mode of See also:

• ACTION

action of Karma; and we find this confusion reflected in Buddhist theory . The prevailing views are tacked on, as it were, to the essential doctrines of Buddhism, without being thoroughly assimilated to them, or logically incorporated with them . Thus in the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the good layman Citta, it is an aspiration expressed on the deathbed;2 in the See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue on the subject, it is a thought dwelt on during life,3 in the numerous stories in the Peta and Vimana Vatthus it is usually some isolated act, in the discussions in the Dhamma Sangani it is some mental disposition, which is the Karma (doing or action) in the one life determining the position of the individual in the next . These are really conflicting pro-positions . They are only alike in the fact that in each case a moral cause is given for the position in which the individual finds himself now; and the moral cause is his own act, In the popular belief, followed also in the brahmin See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, the See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge between the two lives was a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute and subtle entity called the soul, which See also:

• LEFT

left the one body at death, through a hole at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the head, and entered into the new body .

The new body happened to be there, ready, with no soul in it . The soul did not make the body . In the Buddhist See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of this theory no soul, no consciousness, no memory, goes over from one body to the other . It is the grasping, the craving, still existing at the death of the one body that causes the new set of Skandhas, that is, the new body with its mental tendencies and capacities, to arise . How this takes place is nowhere explained . The Indian theory of Karma has been worked out with many See also:

• PHAEDO

Phaedo, 69 et seq . The idea is there also put forward in connexion with a belief in transmigration. x Samyutta, iv . 302 . ' Majjhima, iii . 99 et seq.points of great beauty and ethical value . And the Buddhist adaptation of it, avoiding some of the difficulties See also:

• COMMON

common to it and to the allied European theories of See also:

• FATE

fate and See also:

• PREDESTINATION (from Late Lat. praedestinare, to deter-mine beforehand; from the root sta, as in stare, stand)

predestination, tries to explain the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the universe in its action on the individual; the heavy hand of the immeasurable past we cannot See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion between all forms of life, and the mysteries of inherited character . Incidentally it held out the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope, to those who believed in it, of a mode of escape from the miseries of transmigration .

For as the Arahat had conquered the cravings that were supposed to produce the new body, his actions were no longer Karma, but only Kiriyd, that led to no rebirth.' Another point of Buddhist teaching adopted from previous belief was the practice of ecstatic meditation . In the very earliest times of the most remote See also:

• ANIMISM (from animus, or anima, mind or soul)

animism we find the belief that a person, rapt from all sense of the outside world, possessed by a spirit, acquired from that state a degree of sanctity, was supposed to have a degree of insight, denied to ordinary mortals . In India from the See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

soma frenzy in the Vedas, through the mystic reveries of the Upanishads, and the hypnotic trances of the ancient Yoga, allied beliefs and practices had never lost their importance and their See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm . It is clear from the Dialogues, and other of the most ancient Buddhist records,5 that the belief was in full force when Buddhism arose, and that the practice was followed by the Buddha's teachers . It was quite impossible for him to ignore the question; and the practice was admitted as a part of the training of the Buddhist Bhikshu . But it was not the highest or the most important part, and might be omitted altogether . The states of Rapture are called Conditions of Bliss, and they are regarded as useful for the help they give towards the removal of the mental obstacles to the attainment of Arahatship.6 Of the thirty-seven constituent parts of Arahatship they enter into one See also:

• GROUP

group of four . To seek for Arahatship in the practice of the See also:

• ECSTASY (Gr. iarra(TLc, from i LarliU, put out of its place, alter)

ecstasy alone is considered a deadly heresy.' So these practices are both pleasant in themselves, and useful as one of the means to the end proposed . But they are not the end, and the end can be reached without them . The most ancient form these exercises took is recorded in the often recurring paragraphs translated in Rhys Davids' Dialogues of the Buddha (i . 84-92) . More See also:

• MODERN

modern, and much more elaborate, forms are given in the Yogavacaras See also:

• MANUAL

Manual of Indian See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

Mysticism as practised by Buddhists, edited by Rhys Davids from a unique MS. for the Pali Text Society in 1896 .

In the Introduction to this last work the various phases of the question are discussed at length . Buddhist Texts . The Canonical Books.—It is necessary to re-member that the Buddha, like other Indian teachers of hisperiod, taught by conversation only . A highly-educated man (according to the See also:

• EDUCATION

education current at the time), speaking constantly to men of similar education, he followed the See also:

• LITERARY

literary habit of his day by embodying his doctrines in set phrases (sutras), on which he enlarged, on different occasions, in different ways . See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

Writing was then widely known . But the lack of suitable writing materials made any lengthy books impossible . Such sutras were therefore the recognized form of preserving and communicating See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . They were catchwords, as it were, memoria technica, which could easily be remembered, and would recall the See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller expositions that had been based upon them . Shortly after the Buddha's time the Brahmins had their sutras in See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit, already a dead language . He purposely put his into the ordinary conversational See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom of the day, that is to say, into Pali . When the Buddha died these sayings were collected together by his disciples into what they call the Four Nikayas, or " collections." These cannot have reached their final form till about fifty or sixty years afterwards . Other sayings and verses, most of them ascribed, not to the Buddha, but to the disciples themselves, were put into a supplementary See also:

• NIKAYA (" collection ")

Nikaya .

We know ' The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written . On the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' Hibbert Lectures, pp . 73-120, and Dahlke, Aufsatze zum Verstandnis See also:

• DES

des Buddhismus (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1903), i . 92-106, and ii . 1-11 . 5 For instance, Majjhima, i . 163-166 e tinguttara, iii . 119 . Digha, i . 38 . of slight additions made to this Nikaya as See also:

• LATE

late as the time of See also:

• ASOKA

Asoka, 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . And the See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed doctrine, found in certain portions of it, shows that these are later than the four old Nikayas .

For a generation or two the books so put together were handed down by memory, though probably written memoranda were also used . And they were doubtless accompanied from the first, as they were being taught, by a See also:

• RUNNING

running commentary . About one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years after the Buddha's death there was a See also:

• SCHISM

schism in the community . Each of the two schools kept an arrangement of the canon—still in Pali, or some allied See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect . Sanskrit was not used for any Buddhist works till long afterwards, and never used at all, so far as is known, for the canonical books . Each of these two schools See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up in the following centuries, into others . Several of them had their different arrangements of the canonical books, differing also in See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor details . These books remained the only authorities for about five centuries, but they all, except only our extant Pali Nikayas, have been lost in India . These then are our authorities for the earliest See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of Buddhism . Now what are these books ? We talk necessarily of Pali books . They are not books in the modern sense .

They are memorial sentences or verses intended to be learnt by heart . And the whole See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and method of arrangement is entirely subordinated to this See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity . Each sutra (Pali, sutta) is very short; usually occupying only a See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page, or perhaps two, and containing a single proposition . When several of these, almost always those that contain propositions of a similar kind, are collected together in the framework of one dialogue, it is called a suttanta . The usual length of such a suttanta is about a dozen pages; only a few of them are longer, and a collection of such suttantas might be called a book . But it is as yet neither narrative nor See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay . It is at most a string of passages, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up in similar form to assist the memory, and intended, not to be read, but to be learnt by heart . The first of the four Nikayas is a collection of the longest of these suttantas, and it is called accordingly the Digha Nikaya, that is " the Collection of Long Ones " (sci . Suttantas) . The next is the Majjhima Nikaya, the " Collection of the suttantas of See also:

• MEDIUM

Medium Length "—medium, that is, as being shorter than the suttantas in the Digha, and longer than the ordinary suttas preserved in the two following collections . Between them these first two collections contain 186 dialogues, in which the Buddha, or in a few cases one of his leading disciples, is represented as engaged in conversation on some one of the religious, or philosophic, or ethical points in that system which we now ca11 Buddhism . In See also:

• DEPTH

depth of philosophic insight, in the method of Socratic questioning often adopted, in the See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest and elevated See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of the whole, in the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence they afford of the most cultured thought of the day, these dialogues constantly remind the reader of the dialogues of Plato .

But not in style . They have indeed a style of their own; always dignified, and occasionally rising into eloquence . But for the reasons already given, it is entirely different from the style of Western writings which are always intended to be read . Historical scholars will, however, See also:

• REVERE
• REVERE, PAUL (1735–1818)

revere this collection of dialogues as one of the most priceless of the treasures of antiquity still preserved to us . It is to it, above all, that we shall always have to go for our knowledge of the most ancient Buddhism . Of the 186, 175 had by 1907 been edited for the Pali Text Society, and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder were either in the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press or in preparation . A disadvantage of the arrangement in dialogues, more especially as they follow one another according to length and not according to subject, is that it is not easy to fmd the statement of doctrine on any particular point which is interesting one at the moment . It is very likely just this See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration which led to the compilation of the two following Nikayas . In the first of these, called the Anguttara Nikaya, all those points of Buddhist doctrine capable of expression in classes are set out in order . This practically includes most of the See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology and See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics of Buddhism . For it is a distinguishing See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the dialogues themselves that the results arrived at are arranged in carefully systematized groups . We are familiar enough in the West withsimilar classifications, summed up in such expressions as the Seven Deadly Sins, the Ten Commandments, the Thirty-nine Articles, the Four Cardinal Virtues, the Seven Sacraments and a See also:

• HOST

host of others .

These numbered lists (it is true) are going out of See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . The aid which they afford to memory is no longer required in an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age in which books of reference abound . It was precisely as a help to memory that they were found so useful in the early Buddhist times, when the books were all learnt by heart, and had never as yet been written . And in the Anguttara we find set out in order first of all the. See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units, then all the pairs, then all the trios, and so on . It is the longest book in the Buddhist See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, and fills r84o pages 8vo . The whole of the Pali text has been published by the Pali Text Society, but only portions have been translated into See also:

• ENGLISH

English . The next, and last, of these four collections contains again the whole, or nearly the whole, of the Buddhist doctrine; but arranged this time in order of subjects . It consists of 55 Samyuttas or groups . In each of these the suttas on the same subject, or in one or two cases the suttas addressed to the same sort of people, are grouped together . The whole of it has been published in five volumes by the Pali Text Society . Only a few fragments have been translated . Many hundreds of the short suttas and verses in these two collections are found, word for word, in the dialogues .

And there are numerous instances of the See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory story stating how, and when, and to whom the sutta was enunciated— a sort of narrative framework in which the sutta is set—recurring also . This is very suggestive as to the way in which the earliest Buddhist records were gradually built up . The suttas came first embodying, in set phrases, the doctrine that had to be handed down . Those episodes, found in two or three different places, and always embodying several suttas, came next . Then several of these were See also:

• WOVEN

woven together to form a suttanta . And finally the suttantas were grouped together into the two Nikayas, and the suttas and episodes separately into the two others . Parallel with this See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution, so to say, of the suttas, the short statements of doctrine, in prose, ran the treatment of the verses . There was a great love of poetry in the communities in which Buddhism arose . Verses were helpful to the memory . And they were adopted not only for this reason . The adherents of the new view of life found See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure in putting into appropriate See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse the feelings of See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm and of ecstasy which the reforming doctrines inspired . When particularly happy in literary finish, or peculiarly See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in religious feeling, such verses were not lost .

These were handed on, from mouth to mouth, in the small companies of the brethren or sisters . The oldest verses are all lyrics, expressions either of emotion, or of some deep saying, some pregnant thought . Very few of them have been preserved alone . And even then they are so difficult to understand, so much like puzzles, that they were probably accompanied from the first by a sort of comment in prose, stating when, and why, and by whom they were supposed to have been uttered . As a general See also:

• RULE

rule such a framework in prose is actually preserved in the old Buddhist literature . It is only in the very latest books included in the canon that the narrative part is also regularly in verse, so that a whole work consists of a collection of See also:

• BALLADS

ballads . The last step, that of combining such ballads into one long epic poem, was not taken till after the canon was closed . The whole See also:

• PROCESS

process, from the simple See also:

• ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and isSLSwµu, to give out or publish)

anecdote in mixed prose and verse, the so-called akhyana, to the complete epic, comes out with striking clearness in the history of the Buddhist canon . It is typical, one may