BULGARIA  , a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, situated in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula, and on the Blade See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea . From 1878 until the 5th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 19(38, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary principality, under the See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey . The See also:

• AREA

area of the kingdom amounts to 37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories between the Balkan See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain and the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube; the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Eastern See also:

• RUMELIA, or ROUMELIA (Turkish Rumili, " the land of the Romans," i.e. the East Roman or Byzantine empire)

Rumelia lying south of the Balkans; and the western See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of See also:

• KIUSTENDIL

Kiustendil, Samakov, See also:

• SOFIA (Bulgarian Sredetz, the middle town, a name now little used)

Sofia and Ten . Bulgaria is bounded oit the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the Timok to the eastern suburbs of See also:

• SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra)

Silistria whence a See also:

• LINE

line, forming the Rumanian frontier, is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to a point on the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast to m . S. of See also:

• MANGALIA

Mangalia . On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 M . S. of Sozopolis, runs in' a south-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly direction, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa See also:

• PASHA

Pasha, and reaching the Arda at Adakali . The line laid down by the See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin Treaty (1878) ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the' See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali. and Rupchus included in this boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886 . The See also:

• PRESENT

present frontier, passing to the north of these districts; reaches the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed of Rhodope a little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska Planina to the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian,' Turkish and Bulgarian territories meet . From this point the western or Servian frontier passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and See also:

• PIROT (Turkish Shehr-Kcey)

Pirot to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, reaching the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction with the Danube . The Berlin Treaty boundary was far from corresponding with the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian See also:

• RACE

race, which were more accurately defined by the abrogated treaty of See also:

• SAN

San Stefano (see below, under See also:

• HISTORY

History) . A considerable portion of See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia, the districts of Pirot and See also:

• VRANYA, or VRANYE

Vranya belonging to See also:

• SERVIA

Servia, the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HALF

half of the vilayet of See also:

• ADRIANOPLE
• ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh; Slay. Odrin)

Adrianople, and large tracts of the See also:

• DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea)

Dobrudja, are, according to the best and most impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by a Bulgarian See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population .

See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The most striking physical features are two See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable distance, forms its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern boundary . The Balkans constitute the southern half of the See also:

• GREAT

great semicircular range known as the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Dacian See also:

• SYSTEM

system, of which the Carpathians See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form-the northern portion . This great chain is sundered at the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Gates by the passage of the Danube; its two component parts present many points of resemblance in their aspect and outline, See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological formation and See also:

• FLORA

flora . The Balkans (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Haemus) run almost parallel to the Danube, the mean See also:

• INTERVAL

interval being 6o m.; the summits are, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, rounded, and the slopes See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle . The culminating points are in the centre of the range: Yumrukchal (7835 ft.), Maraguduk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlfa (7464 ft,) . The Balkans are known to the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of the country as the Stara Planina or " Old Mountain," the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective denoting their greater See also:

• SIZE

size as compared with that of the adjacent ranges: " Balkan " is not a distinctive See also:

• TERM

term, being applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, to all mountains . Closely parallel, on the south, are the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or " See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Mountains " (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, en-closing respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk . At its eastern extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Emine (" Haemus "), the northern forming the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers falling directly into the Black Sea . The Rhodope, or southern See also:

• GROUP

group, is altogether distinct from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia; it maybe regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine system which traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric See also:

• ALPS

Alps and the Shar Planina on the west to the Shabkhana Dagh near the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the Balkans . The imposing summit of Musalla (9631 ft.), next to See also:

• OLYMPUS

Olympus, the highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands within the Bulgarian frontier at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Mesta valley, on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and south-east respectively towards the Aegean . The chain of Rhodope proper radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already mentioned, its central See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge no longer completely coincides with the Bulgarian boundary, but two of its See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal summits, Sytke (7179 ft.) and Karlyk (6828 ft.), are within the frontier . From Musalla in a westerly direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this chain attain 7000 ft .

Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.) . To the north of the Rilska Planina the almost isolated See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs Sofia . See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

Snow and See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the Balkans throughout the summer . The fertile slope trending northwards from the Balkans to the Danube is for the most See also:

• PART

part See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual and broken by hills; the eastern portion known as the Deli Orman, or " See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood," is covered by See also:

• FOREST

forest, and thinly inhabited . The abrupt and sometimes precipitous See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the Bulgarian See also:

• BANK

bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side . Northern Bulgaria is watered by the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except the Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube . The channels of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation is consequently difficult and See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation impossible . The course of the Iskr is remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of Samakov, passing thence through a See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine See also:

• DEFILE

defile into the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake; it now forces its way through the Balkans by the picturesque See also:

• GORGE

gorge of Iskretz . Somewhat similarly the Deli, or " Wild," Kamchik breaks the central chain of the Balkans near their eastern extremity and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the Black Sea . The Maritza, the ancient Hebrus, springs from the slopes of Musalla, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters the wide See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of Eastern Rumelia . The Struma (ancient and See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Strymon) drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the Aegean . The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude 3050 ft.), Trn (2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (164o ft.), and Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar feature of the western highlands .

See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost all the systems being exemplified . The Archean, composed of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and crystalline See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, and traversed by eruptive See also:

• VEINS

veins, extends over the greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope, and the adjacent ranges . North of the Balkans it appears only in the neighbourhood of Berkovitza . The other earlier Palaeozoic systems are wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the western Balkans with a See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental fades (See also:

• KULM (Cu1,M)

Kulm), Here anthracitiferous See also:

• COAL

coal is found in beds of argillite and See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone . Red sandstone and See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate, representing the See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia . Above these, in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range . The Cretaceous system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the Balkans to the Danube . Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of the chain . See also:

• FLYSCH

Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene systems, is widely distributed . The Eocene, or older See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary, further appears with nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene only near the Black Sea coast at See also:

• BURGAS (sometimes written Burghaz, Bourgas or Burgas, and, in the middle ages, Pyrgos)

Burgas . Of the Neogene, or younger Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage appears near Pleven (See also:

• PLEVNA (Bulgarian Pleven)

Plevna) in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between See also:

• VARNA

Varna and Burgas with beds of spaniodons, as in the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the plain of the Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna . A See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich mammaliferous See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit (Hipparion, See also:

• RHINOCEROS

Rhinoceros, See also:

• DINOTHERIUM

Dinotherium, See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

Mastodon, &c.) of this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period has been found near Mesemvria .

Other Neogene strata occupy a more limited space . The See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary era is represented by the typical See also:

• LOESS (Ger. Loss)

loess, which covers most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the alluvial deposits of the riparian districts with remains of the Ur See also:

• SUS

sus, Equus, &c., found in See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone-caverns . Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkan,, and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern ranges, presenting See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• SYENITE

syenite, See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, See also:

• DIABASE

diabase, See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz-See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, See also:

• TRACHYTE (Gr. rpaxus, rough)

trachyte, See also:

• ANDESITE

andesite, See also:

• BASALT

basalt, &c . Minerals.—The See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited . The minerals which are commercially valuable include See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold (found in small quantities), See also:

• SILVER

silver, See also:

• GRAPHITE

graphite, See also:

• GALENA

galena, pyrite, See also:

• MARCASITE

marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, See also:

• CUPRITE

cuprite, hematite, See also:

• LIMONITE, or BROWN IRON ORE

limonite, ochre, See also:

• CHROMITE

chromite, See also:

• MAGNETITE

magnetite, See also:

• AZURITE, or CHESSYLITE

azurite, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, See also:

• MALACHITE

malachite, See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum, &c . The combustibles are anthracitiferous coal, coal," See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown coal " and See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite . The lignite mines opened by the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons . Coal beds have been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere . Thermal springs, mostly sulphureous, exist in See also:

• FORTY

forty-three localities along the southern slope of the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil; maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180.5° (See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit), at Sofia 118.4° . Many of these are frequented now, as in See also:

• ROMAN

Roman times, owing to their valuable therapeutic qualities . The mineral springs on the north of the Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that of other See also:

• EUROPEAN

European regions of the same Iatitude is attributable in part to the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general configuration of the Balkan Peninsula .

Extreme See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat in summer and cold in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, great See also:

• LOCAL

local contrasts, and rapid transitions of temperature occur here as in the adjoining countries . The local contrasts are remarkable . In the districts extending from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed to the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter north See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river, notwithstanding the See also:

• VOLUME

volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24 below zero . Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot southerly winds, the summer heat in this region is not unbearable; its maximum is 99° . The high tableland of Sofia is generally covered with snow in the winter months; .it enjoys, however, a somewhat more equable climate than the northern See also:

• DISTRICT

district, the maximum temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air is bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh . In the eastern districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold; the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna . The coast-line is exposed to violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the rovros fll;eivos or " inhospitable sea " of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms . The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm climate; See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring begins six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and the vegetation is that of southern Europe . In general the Bulgarian winter is See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and severe; the spring short, changeable and See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy; the slimmer hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (yasen, " the clear See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time ") magnificently See also:

• FINE

fine and sometimes prolonged into the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December . The mean temperature is 52° . The climate is healthy, especially in the mountainous districts . Malarial See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever prevails in the valley of the Maritza, in the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage .

The mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual rainfall is 25.59 in . (Gabrovo, 41.73; Sofia, 27.68; Varna, 18.5o) . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—Few See also:

• SPECIAL

special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna . Bears are still abundant in the higher mountain districts, especially in the Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear is small and of brown See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, like that of the Carpathians . Wolves are very numerous, and in winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns and villages; in hard See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather they have been known to approach the outskirts of Sofia . The government offers a See also:

• REWARD

reward for the destruction of both these animals . The See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

roe See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less See also:

• COMMON

common; the See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina, Rhodope and the Balkans . The See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal (Canis aureus) appears in the district of Burgas; the See also:

• LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar, See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter, See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, See also:

• BADGER

badger, See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare, wild See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat, See also:

• MARTEN
• MARTEN, AMERICAN
• MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680)
• MARTEN, JAPANESE
• MARTEN, STONE

marten, See also:

• POLECAT

polecat (Foetorius putorius; the rare See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger polecat, Foetorius sarmaticus, is also found), See also:

• WEASEL (Putorius nivalis)

weasel and shrewmouse (Spermophilus citillus) are common . The See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver (Bulg. bebr) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, e.g . Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . See also:

• SNAKES

Snakes (Coluber natrix and other See also:

• SPECIES

species), vipers (Vipers berus and V. ammodytes), and See also:

• LAND

land and See also:

• WATER

water tortoises arc numerous . The domestic animals are the same as in the other countries of south-eastern Europe; the fierce shaggy See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep-See also:

• DOG

dog leaves a lasting impression on most travellers in the interior .

Fowls, especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of geese may be seen in the Moslem villages . The See also:

• ORNITHOLOGY

ornithology of Bulgaria is especially interesting . Eagles (See also:

• AQUILA
• AQUILA ('AxdXas), (1)
• AQUILA, CASPAR [KASPAR ADLER] (1488-1560)
• AQUILA, SERAFINO

Aquila imperialis and the rarer Aquila fulva), vultures (Vultur monachus, Gyps fulvus, Neophron percnopterus), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey are extra-ordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare . The lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) is not uncommon . Immense flocks of wild swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and the lagoons of the Black Sea coast . The See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock of the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods (Tetrao urogallus) is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant in the Tunja valley, the See also:

• BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. Avis tarda, though the application of the epithet' is not easily understood)

bustard (See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

Otis tarda) in the Eastern Rumelian plain . Among the migratory birds are the See also:

• CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span. grulla, with the Gr. dpavos)
• CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900)
• CRANE, WALTER (1845– )
• CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )

crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley, See also:

• WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and wudu-snite)

woodcock, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe and See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail; the great spotted See also:

• CUCKOO

cuckoo (Coccystes glandarius) isan occasional visitant . The red See also:

• STARLING (0. Eng. staer steam, and slerlyng; Lat. surnus; Fr. etourneau)

starling (Pastor roseus) sometimes appears in large flights . The See also:

• STORK (A. S. store, Ger. Storch)

stork, which is never molested, adds a picturesque feature to the Bulgarian See also:

• VILLAGE

village . Of fresh-water See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, the See also:

• STURGEON (Acipenser)

sturgeon (Acipenser sturio and A. huso), sterlet, See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon (Salmo hucho), and See also:

• CARP

carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout . The Black Sea supplies turbot, See also:

• MACKEREL

mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying fish may sometimes be seen . Flora.—In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (I) the northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the southern plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts adjoining the Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and Kiustendil, (5) the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the southern mountain group .

In the first-mentioned region the vegetation resembles that of the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and Rumanian See also:

• STEPPES

steppes; in the spring the country is adorned with the See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers of the See also:

• CROCUS

crocus, orchis, See also:

• IRIS

iris, See also:

• TULIP (Tulipa)

tulip and other bulbous See also:

• PLANTS

plants, which in summer give way to tall See also:

• GRASSES

grasses, umbelliferous growths, dianthi, astragali, &c . In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the richer vegetation recalls that of the neighbourhood of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople and the adjacent parts of See also:

• ASIA

Asia Minor . On the Black Sea coast many types of the See also:

• CRIMEAN

Crimean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present themselves . The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of sub-alpine plants, while the See also:

• VINE

vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil, owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian valleys . The flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians; the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with those of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor . The Alpine types are often represented by variants: e.g. the See also:

• CAMPANULA (Bell-flower)

Campanula alpina by the Campanula orbelica, the Primula farinosa by the Primula frondosa and P. exigua, the Gentiana germanica by the Gentiana bulgarica, &c . The southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus . Among the more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are the following:—See also:

• CENTAUREA

Centaurea, Cirsium, Linaria, Scrophularia, Verbascum, Dianthus, Silene, Trifolium, See also:

• EUPHORBIA

Euphorbia, Cytisus, Astragalus, Ornithogalum, See also:

• ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic ")

Allium, Crocus, Iris, Thymus, Umbellifera, See also:

• SEDUM

Sedum, Hypericum, Scabiosa, See also:

• RANUNCULUS

Ranunculus, Orchis, Ophrys . Forests.—The principal forest trees are the See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, See also:

• BEECH

beech, ash, See also:

• ELM

elm, See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, cornel, See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, pine and See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper . The oak is universal in the thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found . Magnificent forests of beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the southern slope is See also:

• BARE

bare . The walnut and See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut are mainly confined to eastern Rumelia .

Conifers (Pinus silvestris, Picea excelsa, Pinus laricis, Pinus mughus) are rare in the Balkans, but abundant in the higher regions of the southern mountain group, where the Pinus pence, otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas, also flourishes . The wild See also:

• LILAC

lilac forms a beautiful feature in the spring landscape . Wild See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trees, such as the See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear and See also:

• PLUM

plum, are common . The vast forests of the middle ages disappeared under the supine Turkish See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, which took no See also:

• MEASURES

measures for their See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of towns and highways in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to deprive brigands of shelter . A See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law passed in 1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting See also:

• TIMBER

timber, and places the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state forests under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of inspectors . According to See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics, 11,64o sq. m. or about 30 % of the whole superficies of the kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is covered only by brushwood and scrub . The beautiful forests of the Rila district are rapidly disappearing under exploitation . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—Agriculture, the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main source of wealth to the country, is still in an extremely See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . The See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

Ignorance and conservatism of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of communications, want of See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, and in some districts sparsity of population, have all tended to retard the development of this most important See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . The peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production . The plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only partially practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown . The government has sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of agricultural See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of itinerant professors and inspectors, the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of better kinds of seeds, improved implements, &c .

Efforts have been made to improve the breeds of native See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced from See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and distributed throughout the country . Oxen and buffaloes are the principal animals of See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught; the See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo, which was apparently introduced from Asia in remote times, is much prized by the peasants for its See also:

• PATIENCE

patience and strength; it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care . In the eastern districts camels are also employed . The Bulgarian horses are small, but remarkably See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a rule unfitted for draught and See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry purposes . The best sheep are found in the district of Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia . The number of goats in the country tends to decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these animals owing to the injury they inflict on See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young trees . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of oxen is £5 each, draught oxen £12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the pair, cows £2, horses £6, sheep, 7S., goats 5s., each . The principal cereals are See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, See also:

• RYE

rye, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, oats and See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet . The cultivation of maize is increasing in the Danubian and eastern districts . See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields are found in the neighbourhood of See also:

• PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe)

Philippopolis . Cereals represent about 8o % of the See also:

• TOTAL

total exports . Besides See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, Bulgaria produces See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. 'atar, essence)

attar of See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

roses, See also:

• SILK

silk and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton .

The quality of the See also:

• GRAPE

grape is excellent, and could the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank among the best European growths . The tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in considerable quantities for See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption and only an insignificant amount is exported . The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous See also:

• KAVALA, or CAVALLA

Kavala growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant . The See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in the sheltered valleys between the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh . About 6000 lh of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from £12 to £14 per lb . Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia . Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to disease among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise of success . Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern Rumelia . See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18 acres each . There are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but some of the monasteries possess considerable domains . The large tchijliks, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish landowners, have been divided among the peasants . The rural proprietors enjoy the right of pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and of cutting wood in the state forests .

They live in a condition of See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in the towns . A peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural See also:

• LIFE

life is the zadruga, or See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating from prehistoric times . See also:

• FAMILY

Family See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, sometimes numbering several dozen persons, dwell together on a See also:

• FARM

farm n the observance of strictly communistic principles . The association is ruled by a house-See also:

• FATHER

father (domakin, slareishina)i and a house-See also:

• MOTHER