BURMA  , a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, including the former See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Burma, as well as British Burma, acquired by the British See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government in the two See also:

• WARS

wars of 1826 and 1852 . It is divided into Upper and See also:

• LOWER

Lower Burma, the former being the territory annexed on 1st See also:

• JANUARY

January 1886 . The province lies to the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal, and covers a range of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country extending from the Pakchan See also:

• RIVER

river in 90 55' See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude to the Naga and Chingpaw, or Kachin hills, lying roughly between the 27th and 28th degrees of north latitude; and from the Bay of Bengal on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to the See also:

• MEKONG, or ME NAM KONG (pronounced Kawng)

Mekong river, the boundary of the dependent Shan States on the east, that is to say, roughly, between the 92nd and Tooth degrees of east See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude . The extreme length from north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is almost 1200 m., and the broadest See also:

• PART

part, which is in about latitude 210 north, is 575 M. from east to west . On the N. it is bounded by the dependent See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• MANIPUR

Manipur, by the See also:

• MISHMI

Mishmi hills, and by portions of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese territory; on the E. by the Chinese Shan States, portions of the province of Yunnan, the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French province of Indo-See also:

• CHINA

China, and the Siamese Shan, or Lao States and See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam; on the S. by the Siamese See also:

• MALAY

Malay States and the Bay of Bengal; and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal and See also:

• CHITTAGONG

Chittagong . The See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line from Taknaf, the mouth of the Naaf, in the See also:

• AKYAB

Akyab See also:

• DISTRICT

district on the north, to the See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary of the Pakchan at Maliwun on the south, is about 1200 M . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area of the province is estimated at 238,738 sq. m., of which Burma proper occupies 168,573 sq. m., the See also:

• CHIN

Chin hills 10,250 sq. m., and the Shan States, which comprise the whole of the eastern portion of the province, some 59,915 sq. m . Natural Divisions.—The province falls into three natural divisions: See also:

• ARAKAN

Arakan with the Chin hills, the See also:

• IRRAWADDY, or IRAWADI

Irrawaddy See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, and the old province of See also:

• TENASSERIM

Tenasserim, together with the portion of the Shan and See also:

• KAREN

Karen-ni states in the basin of the See also:

• SALWEEN

Salween, and part of Kengtung in the western basin of the Mekong . Of these Arakan is a See also:

• STRIP

strip of country lying on the seaward slopes of the range of hills known as the Arakan Yomas . It stretches from Cape Negrais on the south to the Naaf estuary, which divides it from the Chittagong See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of Eastern Bengal and See also:

• ASSAM

Assam on the north, and includes the districts of See also:

• SANDOWAY

Sandoway, See also:

• KYAUKPYU

Kyaukpyu, Akyab and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Arakan, an area of some 18,540 sq. m . The northern part of this See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract is barren hilly country, but in the west and south are See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich alluvial plains containing some of the most fertile lands of the province . Northwards See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the Chin and some part of the Kachin hills .

To the east of the Arakan division, and separated from it by the Arakan Yomas, lies the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BODY

body of Burma in the basin of the Irrawaddy . This tract falls into four subdivisions . First, there is the highland tract including the hilly country at the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the See also:

• CHINDWIN
• CHINDWIN, UPPER

Chindwin and the upper See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Irrawaddy, the Upper Chindwin, See also:

• KATHA

Katha, See also:

• BHAMO

Bhamo, See also:

• MYITKYINA

Myitkyina and See also:

• RUBY (Lat. rubeus, red)

Ruby Mines districts, with the Kachin hills and a See also:

• GREAT

great part of the Northern Shan states . In the Shan States there are a few open plateaus, fertile and well populated, and See also:

• MAYMYO

Maymyo in the See also:

• MANDALAY

Mandalay district, the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-station to which in the hot See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather the government of Burma migrates, stands in the Pyin-u-lwin See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, some 3500 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . But the greater part of this country is a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of rugged hills cut deep with narrow See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges, within which even the biggest See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers are confined . The second tract is that known as the dry See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of Burma, and includes the:whole of the lowlands lying between the Arakan Yomas and the western fringe of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern Shan States . It stretches along both sides of the Irrawaddy from the north of Mandalay to See also:

• THAYETMYO

Thayetmyo, and embraces the Lower Chindwin, See also:

• SHWEBO

Shwebo, See also:

• SAGAING

Sagaing, Mandalay, See also:

• KYAUKSE

Kyaukse, See also:

• MEIKTILA

Meiktila, Yamethin, See also:

• MYINGYAN

Myingyan, See also:

• MAGWE

Magwe, See also:

• PAKOKKU

Pakokku and See also:

• MINBU

Minbu districts . This tract consists mostly of undulating lowlands, but it is broken towards the south by the See also:

• PEGU

Pegu Yomas, a considerable range of hills which divides the two remaining tracts of the Irrawaddy basin . On the west, between the Pegu and the Arakan Yomas, stretches the Irrawaddy See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta, a vast expanse of level See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain 12,000 sq. m. in area falling in a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual unbroken slope from its See also:

• APEX

apex not far south of See also:

• PROME

Prome down to the sea . This delta, which includes the districtc of Bassei , Mvaungmya . Thnnawa . Henz da, Hantha-waddy, See also:

• THARRAWADDY

Tharrawaddy, Pegu and See also:

• RANGOON

Rangoon See also:

• TOWN

town, consists almost entirely of a rich alluvial See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit, and the whole area, which between Cape Negrais and See also:

• ELEPHANT

Elephant Point is 137 M. wide, is fertile in the highest degree .

To the east lies a tract of country which, though geographically a part of the Irrawaddy basin, is cut off from it by the Yomas, and forms a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• SYSTEM

system draining into the Sittang river . The northern portion of this tract, which on the east touches the basin of the Salween river, is hilly; the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder towards the confluence of the Salween, Gyaing and Attaran rivers consists of broad fertile plains . The whole is comprised in the districts of See also:

• TOUNGOO

Toungoo and See also:

• THATON

Thaton, part of the Karen-ni hills, with the Salween hill tract and the northern parts of See also:

• AMHERST
• AMHERST, JEFFREY AMHERST, BARON (1717-1797)

Amherst, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the northern portion of the Tenasserim administrative division . The third natural division of Burma is the old province of Tenasserim, which, constituted in 1826 with See also:

• MOULMEIN (or MAULMEIN)

Moulmein as its See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, formed the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus from which the British supremacy throughout Burma has grown . It is a narrow strip of country lying between the Bay of Bengal and the high range of hills which form the eastern boundary of the province towards Siam . It comprises the districts of See also:

• MERGUI

Mergui and See also:

• TAVOY

Tavoy and a part of Amherst, and includes also the Mergui See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago . The See also:

• SURFACE

surface of this part of the country is mountainous and much intersected with streams . Northward from this lies the See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major portion of the Southern Shan States and Karen-ni and a narrowing strip along the Salween of the Northern Shan States, Mountains.—Burma proper is encircled on three sides by a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges . The Arakan Yomas starting from Cape Negrais extend northwards more or less parallel with the coast till they join the Chin and Naga hills . They then form part of a system of ranges which See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve north of the sources of the Chindwin river, and with the Kumon range and the hills of the See also:

• JADE
• JADE, or JAHDE

jade and See also:

• AMBER

Amber mines, make up a highland tract separated from the great Northern Shan plateau by the gorges of the Irrawaddy river . On the east the Kachin, Shan and Karen hills, extending from the valley of the Irrawaddy into China far beyond the Salween See also:

• GORGE

gorge, form a continuous barrier and boundary, and tail off into a narrow range which forms the eastern See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed of the Salween and separates Tenasserim from Siam . The highest See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of the Arakan Yomas, Liklang, rises nearly ,o,000 ft. above the sea, and in the eastern Kachin hills, which run northwards from the state of Mong Mit to join the high range dividing the basins of the Irrawaddy and the Salween, are two peaks, Sabu and Worang, which rise to a height of 11,2oo ft. above the sea .

The Kumon range See also:

• RUNNING

running down from the Hkamti country east of Assam to near Mogaung ends in a peak known as Shwedaunggyi, which reaches some 5750 ft . There are several peaks in the Ruby Mines district which rise beyond 7000 ft. and Loi See also:

• LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839)

Ling in the Northern Shan States reaches 9000 ft . Compared with these ranges the Pegu Yomas assume the proportions of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere hills . Popa, a detached peak in the Myingyan district, belongs to this system and rises to a height of nearly 5000 ft., but it is interesting mainly as an See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano, a landmark and an See also:

• OBJECT

object of superstitious See also:

• FOLKLORE

folklore, throughout the whole of Central Burma . Mud volcanoes occur at Minbu, but they are not in any sense mountains, resembling rather the hot springs which are found in many parts of Burma . They are merely craters raised above the level of the surrounding country by the gradual See also:

• ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow)

accretion of the soft oily mud, which over-flows at frequent intervals whenever a See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of See also:

• GAS

gas occurs . Spurs of the Chin hills run down the whole length of the Lower Chindwin district, almost to Sagaing, and one hill, Powindaung, is particularly noted on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its innumerable See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave temples, which are said to hold no fewer than 446444 images of See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha . Huge caves, of which the most noted are the See also:

• FARM

Farm Caves, occur in the hills near Moulmein, and they too are full of See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of their See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient use as temples, though now they are chiefly visited in connexion with the bats, whose See also:

• FLIGHT

flight viewed from a distance, as they issue from the caves, resembles a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke . Rivers.—Of the rivers of Burma the Irrawaddy is the most important . It rises possibly beyond the confines of Burma in the unexplored regions, where India, See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet and China meet, and seems to be formed by the junction of a number of considerable streams of no great length . Two rivers, the Mali and the N'See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

mai, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting about latitude 25' 45' some 150 m. north of Bhamo, contribute chiefly to its See also:

• VOLUME

volume, and during the dry weather it is navigable for steamers up to their confluence . Up to Bhamo, a distance of 900 M. from the sea, it is navigable throughout the See also:

• YEAR

year, and its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief tributary in Burma, the Chindwin, is also navigable for steamers for 300 M. from its junction with the Irrawaddy at Pakokku .

The Chindwin, called in its upper reaches the Tanai, rises in the hills south-west of Thama, and flows due north till it enters the south-east corner of the Hukawng valley, where it turns north-west and continues in that direction cutting the valley into two almost equal parts until it reaches its north-west range, when it turns almost due south and takes the name of the Chindwin . It is a See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift clear river, fed in its upper reaches by numerous mountain streams . The Mogaung river, rising in the watershed which divides the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin drainages, flows south and south-east for 18o m. before it joins the Irrawaddy, and is navigable for steamers as far as Kamaing for about four months in the year . South of Thayetmyo, where arms of the Arakan Yomas approach the river and almost meet that See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur of the Pegu Yomas which formed till 1886 the northern boundary of British Burma, the valley of the Irrawaddy opens out again, and at Yegin Mingyi near Myanaung the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide is first See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, and the delta may be said to begin . The so-called rivers of the delta, the Ngawun, Pyamalaw, Panmawaddy, Pyinzalu and Pantanaw, are simply the larger mouths of the Irrawaddy, and the whole country towards the sea is a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close network of creeks where there are few or no roads and boats take the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of carts for every purpose . There is, however, one true river of some See also:

• SIZE

size, the Hlaing, which rises near Prome, flows southwards and meets the Pegu river and the Pazundaung See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

creek near Rangoon, and thus forms the estuary which is known as the Rangoon river and constitutes the See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of Rangoon . East of the Rangoon river and still within the deltaic area, though cut off from the main delta by the southern end of the Pegu Yomas, lies the mouth of the Sittang . This river, rising in the Sham-Karen hills, flows first due north and then southward through the Kyaukse, Yamethin and Toungoo districts, its line being followed by the Mandalay-Rangoon railway as far south as Nyaunglebin in the Pegu district . At Toungoo it is narrow, but below Shwegyin it widens, and at Sittang it is See also:

• HALF

half a mile broad . It flows into the Gulf of See also:

• MARTABAN

Martaban, and near its mouth its course is constantly changing owing to erosion and corresponding accretions . The second river in the province in point of size is the Salween, a huge river, believed from the volume of its waters to rise in the Tibetan mountains to the north of See also:

• LHASA (LIIASSA, LASSA, " God's ground ")

Lhasa . It is in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability actually longer than the Irrawaddy, but it is not to be compared to that river in importance .

It is, in fact, walled in on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, with See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks varying in British territory from 3000 to 6000 ft. high and at See also:

• PRESENT

present unnavigable owing to serious rapids in Lower Burma and at one or two places in the Shan States, but quite open to See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic for considerable reaches in its See also:

• MIDDLE

middle course . The Gyaing and the Attaran rivers meet the Salween at its mouth, and the three rivers form the harbour of Moulmein, the second seaport of Burma . Lakes.—The largest See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake in the province is Indawgyi in the Myitkyina district . It has an area of nearly 100 sq. m. and is surrounded on three sides by ranges of hills, but is open to the north where it has an outlet in the Indaw river . In the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of the Shan hills there are the Inle lakes near Yawnghwe, and in the Katha district also there is another Indaw which covers some 6o m . Other lakes are the Paunglin lake in Minbu district, the Inma lake in Prome, the Tu and Duya in See also:

• HENZADA

Henzada, the Shahkegyi and the Inyegyi in See also:

• BASSEIN

Bassein, the sacred lake at Ye in Tenasserim, and the Nagamauk, Panzemyaung and WalonbyaninArakan . The Meiktila lake covers an area of some 5 sq. m., but it is to some extent at least an artificial See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir . In the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the delta numerous large lakes or marshes abounding in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish are formed by the overflow of the Irrawaddy river during the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, but these either assume very diminutive proportions or disappear altogether in the dry season . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of the delta is cooler and more temperate than in Upper Burma, and this is shown in the fairer complexion and stouter physique of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of the lower province as compared with the inhabitants of the drier and hotter upper districts as far as Bhamo, where there is a great infusion of other types of the Tibeto-Burman See also:

• FAMILY

family . North of the apex of the delta and the boundary between the deltaic and inland tracts, the rainfall gradually lessens as far as Minbu, where what was formerly called the rainless zone commences and extends as far as Katha . The rainfall in the coast districts varies from about 200 in. in the Arakan and Tenasserim divisions to an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of 90 in Rangoon and the adjoining portion of the Irrawaddy delta . In the extreme north of Upper Burma the rainfall is rather less than in the country adjoining Rangoon, and in the dry zone the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual average falls as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as 20 and 30 in .

The temperature varies almost as much as the rainfall . It is highest in the central zone, the mean of the maximum readings in such districts as Magwe, Myingyan, Kyaukse, Mandalay and Shwebo in the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month of May being close on too F., while in the littoral and sub-montane districts it is nearly ten degrees less . The mean of the minimum readings in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December in the central zone districts is a few degrees under 60° F. and in the littoral districts a few degrees over that figure . In the hilly district of Mog8k (Ruby Mines) the December mean minimum is 36.8° and the mean maxi-mum 79° . The climate of the Chin and Kachin hills and also of the Shan States is temperate . In the shade and off the ground the thermometer rarely rises above 8o° F. or falls below 25° F . In the hot season and in the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun as much as 15o° F. is registered, and on the grass in the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold weather ten degrees of See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost are not uncommon . See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

Snow is seldom seen either in the Chin or Shan hills, but there are snow-clad ranges in the extreme north of the Kachin country . In the narrow valleys of the Shan hills, and especially in the Salween valley, the shade maximum reaches too° F. regularly for several See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks in See also:

• APRIL

April . The rainfall in the hills varies very considerably, but seems to range from about 6o in. in the broader valleys to about too in. on the higher See also:

• FOREST

forest-clad ranges . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—Geologically, British Burma consists of two divisions, an eastern and a western . The dividing line runs from the mouth of the Sittang river along the railway to Mandalay, and thence continues northward, with the same See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general direction but curving slightly towards the east .

See also:

• NEST

Nest of this line the rocks are chiefly See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary and See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary; east of it they are mostly Palaeozoic or gneissic . In the western mountain ranges the beds are thrown into839 a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of folds which form a See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle curve running from south to north with its convexity facing westward . There is an axial zone of Cretaceous and Lower See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene, and this is flanked on each side by the Upper Eocene and the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene, while the valley of the Irrawaddy is occupied chiefly by the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene . Along the southern part of the Arakan coast the sea spreads over the western Miocene zone . The Cretaceous beds have not yet been separated from the overlying Eocene, and the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the system rests on the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of a single Cenomanian ammonite . The Eocene beds are marine and contain nummulites . The Miocene beds are also marine and are characterized by an abundant molluscan See also:

• FAUNA

fauna . The Pliccene, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, is of See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater origin, and contains silicified See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and numerous remains of See also:

• MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

Mammalia . See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

Flint chips, which appear to have been fashioned by hand, are said to have been found in the Miocene beds, but to prove the existence of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man at so See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period would require stronger See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence than has yet been brought forward . The older rocks of eastern Burma are very imperfectly known . See also:

• GNEISS

Gneiss and See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite occur; Ordovician fossils have been found in the Upper Shan States, and Carboniferous fossils in Tenasserim and near Moulmein . Volcanic rocks are not See also:

• COMMON

common in any part of Burma, but about 50 m. north-north-east of Yenangyaung the extinct volcano of Popa rises to a height of 3000 ft. above the surrounding Pliocene plain .

Intrusions of a See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine-like See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock break through the Miocene strata north of Bhamo, and similar intrusions occur in the western ranges . Whether the mud " volcanoes" of the Irrawaddy valley have any connexion with volcanic activity may be doubted . The See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum of Burma occurs in the Miocene beds, one of the best-known See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields being that of Yenangyaung . See also:

• COAL

Coal is found in the Tertiary deposits in the valley of the Irrawaddy and in Tenasserim . See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

Tin is abundant in Tenasserim, and See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead and See also:

• SILVER

silver have been worked extensively in the Shan States . The famous ruby mines of Upper Burma are in metamorphic rock, while the jadeite of the Bhamo neighbourhood is associated with the Tertiary intrusions of serpentine-like rock already noticed.' See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The total population of Burma in 1901 Was 10,490,624 as against 7,722,053 in 1891; but a considerable portion of this large increase was due to the inclusion of the Shan States and the Chin hills in the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census area . Even in Burma proper, however, there was an increase during the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of 1,530,822, or 19.8 % . The See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of population per square mile is 44 as compared with 167 for the whole of India and 552 for the Bengal Delta . See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales have a population more than twelve times as dense as that of Burma, so there is still See also:

• ROOM

room for expansion . The chief races of Burma are Burmese (6,508,682), Arakanese (405,143), Karens (717,859), See also:

• SHANS

Shans (787,087), Chins (179,292), Kachins (64,405) and Talaings (321,898); but these totals do not include the Shan States and Chin hills, The Burmese in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person have the Mongoloid characteristics common to the Indo-Chinese races, the Tibetans and tribes of the Eastern See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya . They may be generally described as of a stout, active, well-proportioned form; of a See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown but never of an intensely dark complexion, with See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, coarse, lank and abundant See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, and a little more See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard than is possessed by the Siamese . Owing to their See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

gay and lively disposition the Burmese have been called " the Irish of the East," and like the Irish they are somewhat inclined to laziness .

Since the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the British See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration of See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus with a lower See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of comfort and of Chinamen with a keener business See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct has threatened the economic See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the Burmese in their own country . As compared with the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu, the Burmese See also:

• WEAR

wear See also:

• SILK

silk instead of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, and eat See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice instead of the cheaper grains; they are of an altogether freer and less servile, but also of a less See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The Burmese See also:

• WOMEN

women have a keener business instinct than the men, and serve in some degree to redress the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance . The Burmese See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children are adored by their parents, and are said to be the happiest and merriest children in the See also:

• WORLD

world . See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

Language and Literature.—The Burmese are supposed by See also:

• MODERN

modern philologists to have come, as See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint members of a vast Indo-Chinese immigration swarm, from western China to the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head waters of the Irrawaddy and then separated, some to people Tibet and Assam, the others to See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press southwards into the See also, for geology, W . See also:

• THEOBALD, (d. 1161)
• THEOBALD, LEWIS (1688-1744)

Theobald, " On the Geology of Pegu," Mem . Geol . Surv . India, vol. x. pt. ii . (1874) ; F . Noetling, " The Development and Subdivision of the Tertiary System in Burma," Rec . Geol .

Surv . India, vol. See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii . (1895), pp . 59-86, pl. ii.; F . Noetling, " The Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma, and its Technical Exploitation," Mem . Geol . Surv . India, vol. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii. pt. ii . (1898) . plains of Burma . The indigenous See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues of Burma are divided into the following See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups: A . Indo-Chinese (I) Tibet-Burman (a) The Burmese See also:

• GROUP

group .

family sub-family (b) The Kachin group . (c) The Kuki-Chin group . (2) Siamese-Chinese (d) The Tai group . sub-family (e) The Karen group . (3) M6n-See also:

• ANNAM, or ANAM

Annam (f) The Upper Middle Me- sub-family See also:

• KONG

kong or Wa Palaung group . (g) The North Cambodian group . (h) The Selung language . Burmese, which was spoken by 7,006,495 people in the province in 1901, is a monosyllabic language, with, according to some authorities, three different tones; so that any given syllable may have three entirely different meanings only distinguishable by the intonation when spoken, or by accents or diacritical marks when written . There are, however, very many weighty authorities who deny the existence of tones in the language . The Burmese See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet is borrowed from the See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit through the See also:

• PALI

Pali of Upper India . The language is written from See also:

• LEFT

left to right in what appears to be an unbroken line . Thus Burma possesses two kinds of literature, Pali and Burmese .

The Pali is by far the more ancient, including as it does the Buddhist scriptures that originally found their way to Burma from See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon and southern India . The Burmese literature is fof the most part metrical, and consists of religious romances, See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological histories and songs . The Maha Yazawin or " Royal See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle," forms the great See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• WORK

work of Burma . This is an authorized See also:

• HISTORY

history, in which everything unflattering to the Burmese monarchs was rigidly suppressed . After the Second Burmese See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record was ever made in the Yazawin that Pegu had been torn away from Burma by the British . The folk songs are the truest and most interesting See also:

• NATIONAL

national literature . The Burmese are fond of See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage-plays in which great See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence of language is permitted, and great See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty to " gag " is left to the wit or intelligence of the actors . Government.—The province as a division of the Indian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire is administered by a See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant-See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, first appointed 1st May 1897, with a legislative See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of nine members, five of whom are officials . There are, besides, a chief secretary, See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue secretary, secretary and two under-secretaries, a public See also:

• WORKS

works See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department secretary with two assistants . The revenue ad-ministration of the province is superintended by a See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner, assisted by two secretaries, and a director of See also:

• LAND

land records and See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, with a land records departmental See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff . There is a chief See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court for the province with a chief See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and three justices, established in May 1900 . Other purely judicial See also:

• OFFICERS

officers are the judicial commissioner for Upper Burma, and the See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges of Mandalay and Moulmein .

There are four commissioners of revenue and See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit, and nineteen See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy commissioners in Lower Burma, and four commissioners and seventeen deputy commissioners in Upper Burma . There are two superintendents of the Shan States, one for the northern and one for the southern Shan States, and an assistant See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent in the latter; a superintendent of the Arakan hill tracts and of the Chin hills, and a Chinese See also:

• POLITICAL

political adviser taken from the Chinese consular service . The See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police are under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of an inspector-general, with deputy inspector-general for civil and military police, and for See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply and clothing . The See also:

• EDUCATION

education department is under a director of public instruction, and there are three circles—eastern, western and Upper Burma, each under an inspector of See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools . The Burma forests are divided into three circles each under a See also:

• CONSERVATOR (Lat. conservare, to preserve)

conservator, with twenty-one deputy conservators . There are also a deputy postmaster-general, chief superintendent and four superintendents of telegraphs, a chief See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector of customs, three collectors and four See also:

• PORT

port officers, and an inspector-general of jails . At the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal towns benches of honorary magistrates,exercising See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of various degrees, have been constituted . There are See also:

• FORTY

forty-one municipal towns, fourteen of which are in Upper Burma . The commissioners of division are ex officio sessions judges in their several divisions, and also have civil powers, and powers as revenue officers . They are responsible to the lieutenant-governor, each in his own division, for the working of every department of the public service, except the military department, and the branches of the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration directly under the control of the supreme government . The deputy commissioners perform the functions of district magistrates, district judges, collectors and registrars, besides the See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous duties which fall to the principal district officer as representative of government . Subordinate to the deputy commissioners are assistant commissioners, extra-assistant commissioners and myo6ks, who are invested with various magisterial, civil and revenue powers, and hold See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the townships, as the See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units of See also:

• REGULAR

regular civil and revenue See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction are called, and the sub-divisions of districts, into which most of these townships are grouped .

Among the salaried staff of officials, the townships officers are the ultimate representatives of government who come into most See also:

• DIRECT

direct contact with the people . Finally, there are the See also:

• VILLAGE

village headmen, assisted in Upper Burma by elders, variously designated according to old See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . Similarly in the towns, there are headmen of wards and elders of blocks . In Upper Burma these headmen have always been revenue collectors . The system under which in towns headmen of wards and elders of blocks are appointed is of comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent origin, and is modelled on the village system . The Shan States were declared to be a part of British India by notification in 1886 . The Shan States See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of 1888 vests the civil, criminal and revenue administration in the chief of the The chats state, subject to the restrictions specified in the sanad states . or patent granted to him . The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law to be administered in each state is the customary law of the state, so far as it is in accordance with the justice, See also:

• EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, and not opposed to the spirit of the law in the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of British India . The superintendents exercise general control over the administration of criminal justice, and have power to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call for cases, and to exercise wide revisionary powers . Criminal jurisdiction in cases in which either the complainant or the See also:

• DEFENDANT