C2H3  and C3Hg, where C:H=7.98 and C:0+N=46.3 . In cannel coals the prevailing constituents are the spores of cryptogamic See also:

• PLANTS

plants, See also:

• ALGAE

algae being rare or in many cases absent . By making very thin sections and employing high magnification (1000-1200 diameters), Renault has been enabled to detect numerous forms of bacilli in the woody parts preserved in See also:

• COAL

coal, one of which, Micrococcus See also:

• CARBO

carbo, bears a strong resemblance to the living Cl'adolhrix found in trees buried in See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat bogs . Clearer See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of their occurrence has, however, been found in fragments of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood fossilized by See also:

• SILICA

silica or carbonate of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime which are sometimes met with in coal seams . The subsequent See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of peaty substance into coal is probably due to See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological causes, i.e. chemical and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical processes similar to those that have converted See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary sediments into See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock masses . Such changes seem, however, to have been very rapidly accomplished, as pebbles of completely formed coal are commonly found in the sandstones and coarser sedimentary strata alternating with the coal seams in.many coalfields . The variation in the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of coal seams in different parts of the same See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin is a difficult See also:

• MATTER

matter to explain . It has been variously attributed to See also:

• METAMORPHISM (Gr. ise-rci, change of, and liop¢i, shape)

metamorphism, consequent upon igneous intrusion, See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth movements and other kinds of geothermic See also:

• ACTION

action, greater or less loss of volatile constituents during the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of coaly transformation, conditioned by See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of See also:

• PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC

permeability in the enclosing rocks, which is greater for sandstones than for argillaceous strata, and other causes; but none of these appears to be applicable over more than limited areas . According to L . Lemiere, who has very fully reviewed the relation of composition to origin in coal seams (Bulletin de la Societe de l'Industrie minerale, 4 See also:

• SER

ser. vol. iv. pp . 851 and 1299, vol . V. p .

273), differences in composition are mainly See also:

• ORIGINAL

original, the denser and more anthracitic varieties representing plant substance which has been more completely macerated and deprived of its putrescible constituents before submergence, or of which the deposition had taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in shallow See also:

• WATER

water, more readily accessible to atmospheric oxidizing influences than the deeper areas where conditions favourable to the elaboration of compounds richer in See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen prevailed . The conditions favourable to the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of coal seem therefore to have been-See also:

• FOREST

forest growth in swampy ground about the mouths of See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, and rapid oscillation of level, the coal produced during subsidence being covered up by the sediment brought down by the See also:

• RIVER

river forming beds of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand or See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, which, on re-See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, formed the See also:

• SOIL

soil for fresh growths, the See also:

• ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns)

alternation being occasionally broken by the See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of purely marine beds . We might therefore expect to find coal wherever strata of estuarine origin are See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass . This is actually the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case; the Carboniferous, Cretaceous and See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic systems (qq.v.) contain coal-bearing strata though in unequal degrees,-the first being known as the Coal See also:

• MEASURES

Measures proper, while the others are of small economic value in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, though more productive in workable coals on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The Coal Measures which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form See also:

• PART

part of the Palaeozoic or See also:

• OLDEST

oldest of the three great geological divisions are mainly confined to the countries See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator . Mesozoic coals are more abundant in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern hemisphere, while See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary coals seem to be tolerably uniformly distributed irrespective of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude . The nature of the Coal Measures will be best understood by It VI . Ic considering in detail the areas within which they occur in Britain, together with the rocks with which they are most intimately associated . The commencement of the Carboniferous period is marked by a mass of limestones known as the Carboniferous or Sequences See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain See also:

• LIMESTONE

Limestone,which contains a large assemblage of See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon- of marine fossils, and has a maximum thickness in iferous S.W . See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales of about '2000 ft . The strata. upper portion of this See also:

• GROUP

group consists of shales and sand-stones, known as the Yoredale Rocks, which are highly developed in the moorland region between See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire and the north See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire . These are also called the Upper Limestone Shale, a similar group being found in places below the limestone, and called the See also:

• LOWER

Lower Limestone Shale, or, in the north of England, the Tuedian group .

Going northward the beds of limestone diminish in thickness, with a proportional increase in the intercalated sandstones and shales, until in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland they are entirely subordinate to a mass of coal-bearing strata, which forms the most productive members of the Scotch coalfields . The next member of the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series is a mass of coarse sandstones, with some slates and a few thin coals, known as the See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone Grit, which is about equally developed in England and in Scotland . In the southern coalfields it is usually known by the miners' name of " Farewell rock," from its marking the lower limit of possible coal working . The Coal Measures, forming the third great member of the Carboniferous series, consist of alternations of shales and sandstones, with beds of coal and nodular ironstones, which together make up a thickness of many thousands of feet—from 12,000 to 14,000 ft. when at the maxi-mum of development . They are divisible into three parts, the Lower Coal Measures, the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle or See also:

• PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798)

Pennant, a mass of See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone containing some coals, and the Upper Coal Measures, also containing workable coal . The latter member is marked by a thin limestone See also:

• BAND

band near the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, containing Spirorbis carbonarius, a small marine univalve . The uppermost portion of the Coal Measures consists of red sandstone so closely resembling that of the See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian group, which are next in geological sequence, that it is often difficult to decide upon the true See also:

• LINE

line of demarcation between the two formations . These are not, however, always found together, the Coal Measures being often covered by strata belonging to the Trias or Upper New Red Sandstone series . The areas containing productive coal measures are usually known as coalfields or basins, within which coal occurs in more or less See also:

• REGULAR

regular beds, also called seams or See also:

• VEINS

veins, which can often be followed over a considerable length of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country without change of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, although, like all stratified rocks, their continuity may be interrupted by faults or dislocations, also known as slips, hitches, heaves or troubles . The thickness of coal seams varies in Great Britain from a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere film to 35 or 40 ft.; but in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India masses of coal are known up to 200 ft. in thickness . These very thick seams are, however, rarely See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant in character for any great distance, being found commonly to degenerate into carbonaceous shales, or to split up into thinner beds by the intercalation of shale bands or partings . One of the most striking examples of this is afforded by the thick or ten-yard seam of South See also:

• STAFFORDSHIRE

Staffordshire, which is from 30 to 45 ft. thick in one connected mass in the neighbourhood of See also:

• DUDLEY
• DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF
• DUDLEY, EDMUND (c. 1462—1510)
• DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT (1573—1649)
• DUDLEY, THOMAS (1576-1653)

Dudley, but splits up into eight seams, which, with the intermediate shales and sandstones, are of a See also:

• TOTAL

total thickness of 400 ft. in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern part of the coal-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field in See also:

• CANNOCK

Cannock See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

Chase .

Seams of a See also:

• MEDIUM

medium thickness of 3 to 7 ft. are usually the most regular and continuous in character . Cannel coals are generally variable in quality, being liable to change into shales or See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black-band ironstones within very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal limits . In some instances the coal seams may be changed as a whole, as for instance in South Wales, where the coking coals of the eastern side of the basin pass through the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of dry See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam coal in the centre, and become See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite in the western side . (H . B.) The most important See also:

• EUROPEAN

European coalfields are in Great Britain, See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . In Great Britain there is the South Welsh field, extending westward from the See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march of See also:

• MONMOUTH (Welsh Mynwy)
• MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF (1778)
• MONMOUTH, JAMES SCOTT
• MONMOUTH, ROBERT CAREY, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1560-1639)

Monmouth-See also:

• SHIRE

shire to See also:

• KIDWELLY (Cydweli)

Kidwelly, and northward to Merthyr Tydfil . A midland group of coalfields extends from south Lancashire to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• RIDING

Riding of Yorkshire, the two greatest See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial districts Geo- in the country, southward to See also:

• WARWICKSHIRE

Warwickshire and graphical Staffordshire, andfromNottinghamshire on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to distribu-Flintshire on the west . In the north of England are tlon of coal- the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich field of See also:

• NORTHUMBERLAND
• NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, VISCOUNT LISLE, EARL OF WARWICK
• NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN NEVILLE, EARL OF (c. 1430-1471)

Northumberland and See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham, and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields. a lesser field on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland (See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White- haven, &c.) . Smaller isolated fields are those.of the Forest of See also:

• DEAN (Lat. decanus, derived from the Gr. 8eaa, ten)
• DEAN, FOREST OF

Dean (See also:

• GLOUCESTERSHIRE

Gloucestershire) and the field on either side of the See also:

• AVON

Avon above See also:

• BRISTOL
• BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF1 (1612-1677)
• BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF 6 (1580-1653)

Bristol . Coal has also been found in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, in the neighbourhood of See also:

• DOVER
• DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE
• DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708)
• DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641)

Dover . In Scotland coal is worked at various points (principally in the west) in the See also:

• CLYDE (Welsh, Clwyd, " far heard," " strong," the Glotta of Tacitus)
• CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863)

Clyde-Forth lowlands . In Belgium the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief coal-basins are those of See also:

• HAINAUT (Flem. Henegouwen, Ger. Hennegau)

Hainaut and See also:

• LIEGE
• LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lilltich)

Liege .

Coal has also been found in an See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension northward from this field towards See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp, while westward the same field extends into north-eastern France . Coal is widely distributed in Germany . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal field is that of the lower See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine and See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia, which centres in the industrial region of the basin of the See also:

• RUHR

Ruhr, a right-See also:

• BANK

bank tributary of the Rhine . In the other chief industrial region of Germany, in See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, See also:

• ZWICKAU

Zwickau and Lugau, are important See also:

• MINING

mining centres . In See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia there is a third rich field, which extends into See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria (See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian Silesia and See also:

• GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halicz)
• GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Callaecia, KaMauci,a or KaXau da)

Galicia), for which country it forms the chief See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home source of See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply (apart from See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite) . Part of the same field also lies within See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian territory (See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland) near the point where the frontiers of the three See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers meet . Both in Germany and in Austria-See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary the production of lignite is large—in the first-named' especially in the districts about See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle and See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne; in the second in north-western Bohemia, See also:

• STYRIA (German, Steiermark or Steyermark)

Styria and See also:

• CARNIOLA (Ger. Krain)

Carniola . In France the principal coalfield is that in the north-east, already mentioned; another of importance is the central (Le Creusot,&c.) and a third, the southern, about the lower course of the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone . Coal is See also:

• PRETTY

pretty widely distributed in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and occurs in several districts in the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . In See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, besides the See also:

• POLISH

Polish field, there is an important one south of See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow, and another in the lower valley of the Donetz, north of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea of See also:

• AZOV
• AZOV, SEA OF

Azov . The European region poorest in coal (proportionately to See also:

• AREA

area) is Scandinavia, where there is only one field of economic value—a small one in the extreme south of See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden . In See also:

• ASIA

Asia the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese coalfields are of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• INTEREST

interest .

They are widely distributed throughout See also:

• CHINA

China Proper, but those of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Shansi appear to be the richest . Proportionately to their vast extent they have been little worked . In a modified degree the same is true of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian fields; large supplies are unworked, but in several districts, especially about Raniganj and elsewhere in See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal, workings are fully developed . Similarly in See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia and See also:

• JAPAN

Japan there are extensive supplies unworked or only partially exploited . Those in the neighbourhood of See also:

• SEMIPALATINSK

Semipalatinsk may be instanced in the first case and those in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• YEZO

Yezo in the second . In Japan, however, several smaller fields (e.g. in the island of Kiushiu) are more fully developed . Coal is worked to some extent in See also:

• SUMATRA

Sumatra, See also:

• BRITISH

British North See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo, and the Philippine Islands . In the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America the Appalachian mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system, from See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania southward, roughly marks the line of the chief coal-producing region . This group of fields is followed in importance by the " Eastern Interior " group in See also:

• INDIANA

Indiana, See also:

• ILLINOIS

Illinois and See also:

• KENTUCKY

Kentucky, and the " Western Interior " group in See also:

• IOWA

Iowa, See also:

• MISSOURI

Missouri and See also:

• KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas . In See also:

• ARKANSAS

Arkansas, See also:

• OKLAHOMA (a Choctaw Indian word meaning " red people ")

Oklahoma and See also:

• TEXAS

Texas, and along the line of the Rocky Mountains, extensive fields occur, producing lignite and bituminous coal . The last-named fields are continued northward in See also:

• CANADA

Canada (See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

Crow's See also:

• NEST

Nest Pass field, See also:

• VANCOUVER
• VANCOUVER, GEORGE (c. 1758-1798)

Vancouver Island, &c.) . There is also a group of coalfields on the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic seaboard of the Dominion, principally in Nova See also:

• SCOTIA (Gr. o'Karca, shadow or darkness)

Scotia .

Coal is known at sever-al points in See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska, and there are rich but little worked deposits in See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico . In the southern countries coal-production is insignificant compared with that in the northern hemisphere . In South America coal is known in See also:

• VENEZUELA

Venezuela, See also:

• COLOMBIA

Colombia, See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru, northern See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile, See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil (chiefly in the south), and See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina (See also:

• PARANA

Parana, the extreme south of See also:

• PATAGONIA

Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego), but in no country are the workings extensive . See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa is apparently the continent poorest in coal, though valuable workings have been developed at various points in British South Africa, e.g. at Kronstad, &c., in Cape See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

Colony, at Vereeniging, See also:

• BOKSBURG

Boksburg and elsewhere in the See also:

• TRANSVAAL

Transvaal, in See also:

• NATAL

Natal and in See also:

• SWAZILAND (native name Pungwane)

Swaziland . See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia possesses fields of great value, principally in the south-east (New South Wales and See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria), and in New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand considerable quantities of coal and lignite are raised, chiefly in South Island . The following table, based on figures given in the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

Steel See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute, vol . 72, will give an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the coal production of the See also:

• WORLD

world: Europe:— Tons . United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom . 1905 236,128,936 Germany, coal . „ 121,298,167 lignite „ 52,498,507 France „ 35,869,497 Belgium 21,775,280 Austria, coal 12,585,263 lignite . 22,692,076 Hungary, coal . . 1904 1,031,501 lignite 5,447,283 Spain .

. 1905 3,202,911 Russia . . 1904 19,318,000 See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland 466,997 Bosnia, lignite . . 1905 540,237 See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania „ . . 1903 110,000 See also:

• SERVIA

Servia . 1904 183,204 See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, coal and lignite 1905 412,916 Sweden 322,384 See also:

• GREECE

Greece, lignite . 1904 466,997 Asia: 1905 8,417,739 India Japan 1903 10,088,845 Sumatra 1904 207,280 Africa: 1904 2,409,033 Transvaal . . Natal . 1905 1,129,407 Cape Colony . 1904 154,272 America 1905 350,821,000 United States . Canada . 1904 7,509,860 Mexico .. 700,000 Peru .

1905 72,665 See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia 1905 6,632,138 New South Wales . See also:

• QUEENSLAND

Queensland „ 529,326 Victoria 153,135 Western Australia 127,364 See also:

• TASMANIA

Tasmania . 51,993 New Zealand 1,585,756 The questions, what is the total amount of available coal in the coalfields of Great Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, and how See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long it may be expected to last, have frequently been discussed since the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early part of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, and particular See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was directed to them after the publication of See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

Stanley See also:

• JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882)

Jevons's See also:

• BOOK

book on The Coal Question in 1865 . In 1866 a royal See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission was appointed to inquire into the subject, and in its See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report, issued in 1871, estimated that the In Table V. below See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column I. shows the quantity of coal still remaining unworked, in the different coalfields at depths not exceeding 4000 ft. and in seams not less than 1 ft. thick, as estimated by seven See also:

• DISTRICT

district commissioners; column II. the total estimated reductions on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of loss in working due to faults and other natural causes in seams and of coal required to be See also:

• LEFT

left for barriers, support of See also:

• SURFACE

surface buildings, &c.; and column III. the estimated See also:

• NET

net available amount remaining unworked . As regards the duration of British coal resources, the commissioners reported (1905): " This question turns chiefly upon the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance or the variation of the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual output . The calculations of the last Coal Commission as to the future exports and of Mr Jevons as to the future annual See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption make us hesitate to prophesy how long our coal resources are likely to last . The See also:

• PRESENT

present annual output is in See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers 230 million tons, and the calculated available resources in the proved coalfields are in round numbers 100,000 million tons, exclusive of the 40,000 million tons in the unproved coalfields, which we have thought best to regard only as probable or speculative . For the last See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years the See also:

• AVERAGE

average increase in the output has been 2i % per annum, and that in the exports (including bunkers) 41% per annum . It is the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the District Commissioners that owing to physical considerations it is highly probable that the present See also:

• RATE

rate of increase of the putput of coal can long continue—indeed, they think that some districts have already attained their maximum output, but that on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the developments in the newer coalfields will possibly increase the total output for some years . In view of this opinion and of the exhaustion of the shallower collieries we look forward to a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, not far distant, when the rate of increase of output will be slower, to be followed by a period of stationary output, and then a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual decline." According to a calculation made by P . Frech in 1900, on the basis of the then rate of production, the coalfields of central France, central Bohemia, the kingdom of Saxony, the Prussian province of Saxony and the north of England, would be exhausted in 100 to 200 years, the other British coalfields, the See also:

• WALDENBURG

Waldenburg-Schatzlar and that of the north of France in 250 years, those of Saarbriicken, Belgium, Aachen and Westphalia in 600 to Boo years, and those of Upper Silesia in more than See also:

• I000

i000 years . (O .

J . R . H.; H . M . R.) Coal-Mining . The opening and laying out, or, as it is generally called, "winning," of new collieries is rarely Preliminundertaken without a ary trial preliminary examination ofcoalof the character of the workings. strata by means of borings, either for the purpose of determining the Coal resources of Great Britain . District . Coalfield . I . II . III . A South Wales and See also:

• MONMOUTHSHIRE

Monmouthshire 33,443,000,339 6,972,003,760 26,470 996,579 See also:

• SOMERSETSHIRE

Somersetshire and part of Glou- cestershire No details No details 4,198,301,099 Forest of Dean 305,928,137 47,394,690 258,533,447 `North See also:

• STAFFORD
• STAFFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Stafford 5,267,833,074 899,782,727 4,368,050,347 South Stafford 1,953,627,435 538,179,363 1,415,448,072 B .

Warwickshire 1,448,804,556 321,822,653 1,126,981,903 See also:

• LEICESTERSHIRE

Leicestershire 2,467,583,205 642,124,654 1,825,458,551 See also:

• SHROPSHIRE (SALOP)

Shropshire 369,174,620 48,180,921 320,993,699 C {LCheshiancasrehire 5,349,554,437 1,111,046,710 4,238,507,727 . . . . . . . 358,998,172 67,165,901 291,832,271 North Wales 2,513,026,200 776,558,371 1,736,467,829 D {Yorkshire No details No details 19,138,006,395 See also:

• DERBY
• DERBY, EARLS OF

Derby and Notts . No details No details 7,360,725,100 Northumberland 7,040,348,127 1,530,722,486 5,509,625,641 E . Cumberland 2,188,938,830 661,230,025 1,527,708,805 Durham 6,607,700,522 1,336,584,176 5,271,116,346 F . Scotland 21,259,767,661 5,579,311 ;305 15,681,456,356 G . Ireland No details No details 174,458,000 number and nature of the coal seams in new ground, or the position of the particular seam or seams which it is proposed to See also:

• WORK

work in extensions of known coalfields . The principle of proving a See also:

• MINERAL

mineral field by See also:

• BORING

boring is illustrated by fig . 1, which represents a line See also:

• DIRECT

direct from the See also:

• DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

dip to the rise of the field, the inclination of the strata being one in eight . No .

1 See also:

• BORE

bore is commenced at the dip, and reaches a seam of coal A, at 4J fathoms; at this See also:

• DEPTH

depth it is considered proper to remove nearer t. the outcrop so that lower strata may be bored into at a less depth, and a second bore is commenced . To find the position of No . 2, so as to form a continuous See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, it is necessary to reckon the inclination of the strata, which is 1 in 8; and as bore No . 1 was 40 fathoms in depth, we multiply the depth by the rate of inclination, 4.0 X 8 = 320 fathoms, which gives the point at which the coal seam A should reach the surface . But there is generally a certain depth of alluvial See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover which requires to be deducted, and which we See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call 3 fathoms, then (40—3 = 37) X 8 = 296 fathoms; or say 286 fathoms is the distance that the second bore should be placed to the rise of the first, so as to have, for certain, the seam of coal A in clear connexion with the seam of coal B . In bore No . 3, where the seam B, according to the same system of arrangement, should have been found at or near the surface, another seam C is proved at a considerable depth, differing in character and thickness from either of the preceding . This derangement being carefully noted, another bore to thcoutcrop on the same principle is put down for the purpose of proving the seam C; the nature of the strata at first is found to agree with the latter part of that bored through in No . 3, but immediately on See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the dislocation seen in the figure it is changed and the deeper seam D is found . The evidence therefore of these bores (3 and 4) indicates some material derangement, which is then proved by other bores, either towards the dip or the outcrop, according to the See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of the borer, so as to ascertain the best position for sinking pits . (For the methods of boring see BORING.) The working of coal may be conducted either by means of levels or galleries driven from the outcrop in a valley, or by shafts or pits sunk from the surface . In the early Methods days of coal-mining, open working, or See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying from Working. the outcrop of the seams, was practised to a consider- able extent; but there are now few if any places in England where this can be done .

In 1873 there could be seen, in the thick coal seams of Bengal, near Raniganj, a seam about 5o ft. thick laid See also:

• BARE

bare, over an area of several acres, by stripping off a superficial covering varying from ro to 30 ft., in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to remove the whole of the coal without loss by pillars . Such a case, however, is quite exceptional . The operations by which the coal is reached and laid out for removal are known as " win- ning," the actual working or extraction of the coal being termed " getting." In fig . 2 A B is a See also:

• CROSS

cross cut level, by which the seams of coal 1 and 2 are won, and C D a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft by which the seams 1, 2 and 3 are won . When the field is won by the former method, the coal lying above the level is said to be "level-See also:

• FREE

free." The mode of winning by level is of _ass general application than that by shafts, as the capacity for production is less, owing to the smaller See also:

• SIZE

size of roadways by which the coal must be brought to the surface, levels of large section being expensive and difficult to keep open when the mine has been for some time at work . Shafts, on the other hand, may be made of almost any capacity, owing to the high See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing which is attainable with proper mechanism, and allow of the use of more perfect arrangements at the surface than can usually be adopted at the mouth of a level on a See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-side . A more cogent See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, how-ever, is to be found in the fact that the principal coalfields are in See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat countries, where the coal can only be reached by vertical sinking . The methods adopted in See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving levels for collieries are generally similar to those adopted in other mines . The ground is secured by timbering, or more usually by arching in See also:

• MASONRY

masonry or See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-work . Levels like that in fig . 2, which are driven across the stratification, or generally anywhere not in coal, are known as " stone drifts." The sinking of colliery shafts, how-ever, differs considerably from that of other mines, owing to their generally large size, and the difficulties stnktngot shafts . that are often encountered from water during the sinking .

The actual coal measure strata, consisting mainly of shales and See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays, are generally impervious to water, but when strata of a permeable character are sunk through, such as the magnesian limestone of the north of England, the Permian sandstones of the central counties, or the See also:

• CHALK

chalk and See also:

• GREENSAND

greensand in the north of France and Westphalia, See also:

• SPECIAL

special methods are required in order to pass the water-bearing beds, and to protect the shaft and workings from the influx of water subsequently . Of these methods one of the chief is the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of tubbing, or lining Tubbing the excavation with an impermeable casing of wood or iron, generally the latter, built up in segments forming rings, which are piled upon each other throughout the whole depth of the water-bearing strata . This method necessitates the use of very considerable pumping See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power during the sinking, as the water has to be kept down in order to allow the sinkers to reach a water-tight stratum upon which the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the tubbing can be placed . This consists of a heavy See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast iron See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, known as a wedging See also:

• CRIB (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch krib and Ger. Krippe; it has a common origin with the O. Eng. " cratch," a manger or crib, cf. Fr. creche)

crib, or curb, also fitted together in segments, which is lodged in a square-edged groove cut for its reception, tightly caulked with See also:

• MOSS

moss, and wedged into position . Upon this the tubbing is built up in segments, of which usually from 10 to 12 are required for the entire circumference, the edges being made perfectly true . The thickness varies according to the pressure expected, but may be taken at from 1 to 11 in . The inner See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face is smooth, but the back is strengthened with See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle brackets at the corners . A small hole is left in the centre of each segment, which is kept open during the fitting to prevent undue pressure upon any one, but is stopped as soon as the circle is completed . In the north of France and Belgium wooden tubbings, built of polygonal rings, were at one time in general use . The polygons adopted were of 20 or more sides approximating to a circular form . The second principal method of sinking through water-bearing ground is by compressed See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . The shaft is lined with a See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder of wrought iron, within which a tubular chamber, See also:

• PNEUMATICS (Gr. Irveiiµa, wind, air)

Pneumatics provided with doors above and below, known as an staking air-See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock, is fitted by a telescopic See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint, which is tightly packed so as to See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close the top of the shaft air-tight .

Air is then forced into the inclosed space by means of a compressing See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine, until the pressure is sufficient to oppose the flow of water into the excavation, and to drive out