See also:

• GAIUS

GAIUS See also:

• JULIUS

JULIUS See also:

• GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

CAESAR (102—44 B.c.)  , the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ROMAN

Roman soldier and statesman, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born on the 12th of See also:

• JULY

July 102 B.c.1 His See also:

• FAMILY

family was of patrician See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and traced a legendary descent from See also:

• IULUS

Iulus, the founder of See also:

• ALBA

Alba Longa, son of See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas and See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of See also:

• VENUS

Venus and See also:

• ANCHISES

Anchises . See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built a See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple in his See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

forum to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent was of little importance in politics and disqualified Caesar from holding the tribunate, an See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office to which, as a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired . The Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new nobilitas, which belonged to holders of the great magistracies . Caesar's See also:

• UNCLE

uncle was See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul in 91 B.C., and his See also:

• FATHER

father held the praetorship . Most of the family seem to have belonged to the senatorial party (optimates) ; but Caesar himself was from the first a popularis . The determining See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor is no doubt to be sought in his relationship with C . See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius, the See also:

• HUSBAND

husband of his aunt Julia . Caesar was born in the See also:

• YEAR

year of Marius's first great victory over the Teutones, and as he See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up, inspired by the 'traditions of the great soldier's career, attached himself to his party and its fortunes . Of his See also:

• EDUCATION

education we know scarcely anything . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother, See also:

• AURELIA, VIA

Aurelia, belonged to a distinguished family, and See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus (See also:

• DIAL

Dial. de Orat. See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii.) couples her name with that of See also:

• CORNELIA (end cent. Bc.)

Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the Roman matron In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch and See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian that Caesar was in his fifty-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth year at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of his See also:

• MURDER

murder, it is, as See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.c., since he held the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief offices of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, beginning with the aedileship in 65 B.c., and the legal See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age for this was fixed at 37-38.whose disciplina and severitas formed her son for the duties of a soldier and statesman . His See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor was M . See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius Gnipho, a native of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to have been equally learned in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin literature, and to have set up in later years a school of See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric which was attended by See also:

• CICERO

Cicero in his praetorship 66 B.c .

It is possible that Caesar may have derived from him his See also:

• INTEREST

interest in Gaul and its See also:

• PEOPLE

people and his sympathy with the claims of the Romanized Gauls of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy to See also:

• POLITICAL

political rights . In his sixteenth year (87 B.c.) Caesar lost his father, and assumed the toga virilis as the token of manhood . The social See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war (90—89 B.C.) had been brought to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close by the enfranchisement of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome's See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian subjects; and the See also:

• CIVIL

civil war which followed it led, after the departure of See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla for the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, to the temporary See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the populares, led by Marius and See also:

• CINNA
• CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS

Cinna, and the indiscriminate See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of their political opponents, including both of Caesar's uncles . Caesar was at once marked out for high distinction, being created Jlamen Dialis or See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter . In the following year (which saw the See also:

• DEATH

death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a proposed See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and obtained the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became further identified with the ruling party . His career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant return of Sulla (82 B.c.), who ordered him to See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce his wife, and on his refusal deprived him of his See also:

• PROPERTY

property and priesthood and was induced to spare his See also:

• LIFE

life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives and the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of vestal virgins . Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.) See also:

• LEFT

left Rome for the East and served his first See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was engaged in stamping out the embers of resistance to Roman See also:

• RULE

rule in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and received from him the " civic See also:

• CROWN

crown " for saving a See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-soldier's life at the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm of Mytilene . In 78 B.C. he was serving under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the See also:

• NEWS

news of Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome . Refusing to entangle himself in the abortive.and equivocal schemes of See also:

• LEPIDUS

Lepidus to subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors, Cn . See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius See also:

• DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS

Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C . Antonius (in 76 B.c.) for See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion in the provinces of See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia and See also:

• GREECE

Greece, and though he lost both cases, probably convinced the See also:

• WORLD

world at large of the corruption of the senatorial tribunals . After these failures Caesar determined to take no active See also:

• PART

part in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in order to study rhetoric under Molon, at See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes .

On the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey thither he was caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while awaiting his See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when released he lost no time in carrying out his See also:

• THREAT

threat . Whilst he was studying at Rhodes the third Mithradatic War See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, and Caesar at once raised a See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps of See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers and helped to secure the wavering See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty of the provincials of Asia . When See also:

• LUCULLUS

Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman troops in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been elected to a seat on the college of pontifices lef t vacant by the death of his uncle, C . Aurelius See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

Cotta . He was likewise elected first of the six tribuni militum a populo, but we hear nothing of his service in this capacity . Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into the agitation for the restoration of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and that he secured the passing of a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty in favour of the partisans of See also:

• SERTORIUS, QUINTUS

Sertorius . He was not, however, destined to See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass the downfall of the Sullan regime; the crisis of the Slave War placed the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey and See also:

• CRASSUS (literally " dense," " thick," " fat ")

Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards of senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, i.e. the capitalists, in partial See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• JURY

jury-courts . This judicial reform (or rather See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise) was the See also:

• WORK

work of Caesar's uncle, L . Aurelius Cotta . Caesar himself, however, gained no See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . In 69 B.C. he served as See also:

• QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate)

quaestor under Antistius Vetus, See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Hither See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and on his way back to Rome (according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early years . amongst the Transpadanes for the acquisition of full political rights, which had been denied them by Sulla's See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement .

Caesar was now best known as a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, celebrated for his debts and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind him See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that of the discredited party of the populares, Opposition reduced to lending a passive support to Pompey and to the Optlmates . Crassus . But as soon as the proved incompetence of the senatorial See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government had brought about the See also:

• MISSION

mission of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited powers conferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian See also:

• LAWS

laws of 67 and 66 B.C . (see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political intrigues which it is no longer possible to unravel . In his public acts he lost no opportunity of upholding the democratic tradition . Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded the bust of Marius at his aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule See also:

• AEDILE (Lat. aedilis)

aedile, he restored the trophies of Marius to their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C., as See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the murder See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission, he brought three of Sulla's executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of trial by popular See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly to be revived against the murderer of See also:

• SATURNINUS, LUCIUS APPULEIUS

Saturninus . By these means, and by the lavishness of his See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure on public entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs that he was elected See also:

• PONTIFEX

pontifex See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

maximus in 63 B.C. against such distinguished rivals as Q . Lutatius See also:

• CATULUS

Catulus and P . Servilius Isauricus . But all this was on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface . There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at least of the threads of See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy which were See also:

• WOVEN

woven during Pompey's See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence in the East . According to one See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, the enfants perdus of the revolutionary party—See also:

• CATILINE [Lucius SERGIUS CATILINA] (C. I08-62 B.C.)

Catiline, Autronius and others—designed to assassinate the consuls on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 65, and make Crassus See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator, with Caesar as See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse .

We are also told that a public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military command in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, not without a legitimate See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king and nominally under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Rome . An equally abortive See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to create a counterpoise to Pompey's See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was made by the See also:

• TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribune, from classical Lat. tribunal)

tribune See also:

• RULLUS, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS

Rullus at the close of 64 B.C . He proposed to create a See also:

• LAND

land commission with very wide powers, which would in effect have been wielded by Caesar and Crassus . The See also:

• BILL

bill was defeated by Cicero, consul in 63 B.C . In the same year the conspiracy associated with the name of Catiline came to a See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . The See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of complicity was freely levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato in the great debate in the senate . But Caesar, for party reasons, was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to oppose the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation, was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further anarchist plots . Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as suited their convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, which served to aggravate the embarrassments of the government . As See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor (62 B.c.) Caesar supported proposals in Pompey's favour which brought him into violent collision with the senate . This was a master-stroke of See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics, as Pompey's return was imminent . Thus when Pompey landed in Italy and disbanded his See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army he found in Caesar a natural ally . After some delay, said to have been caused by the exigencies of his creditors, which were met by a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of £200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left Rome for his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial position, and to See also:

• LAY

lay the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of a military reputation .

He returned to Rome in 6o B.C. to find that the senate had sacrificed the support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant lands to his soldiers . Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, who alike detested the existing See also:

• SYSTEM

system of government but were personally at variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel and join him in a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition which should put an end to the rule of the See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy . He even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support of Cicero . The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional government ceased to exist save in name . The first See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize which See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure which he forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain . His colleague was M . See also:

• BIBULUS

Bibulus, who belonged to thestraitest See also:

• SECT

sect of the senatorial oligarchy and, together with his party, placed every See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of constitutional obstruc- coalition tionin the path of Caesar's legislation . Caesar, however, with See also:

• PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524–1606)

Pont-overrode all opposition, mustering Pompey's veterans pey and to drive his colleague from the forum . Bibulus became Crassus. a virtual prisoner in his own See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, and Caesar placed himself outside the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . Thus the See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme of the coalition was carried through . Pompey was satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and by the See also:

• ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE

assignment of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the capitalists (with whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain for the farming of the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic revenues cancelled, See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy Auletes received the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of his See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title to the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Egypt (for a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration amounting to £1,500,000), and a fresh See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was passed for preventing extortion by provincial governors . It was now all-important for Caesar to secure See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical irresponsibility by obtaining a military command .

The senate, in virtue of its constitutional See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative, had assigned Gallic as the provincia of the consuls of 59 B.c.the supervision, See also:

• WARS

wars. of roads and forests in Italy . Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring upon himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria for five years, and exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, where, as he well knew, a storm was See also:

• BREWING

brewing which threatened to sweep away Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization beyond the See also:

• ALPS

Alps . The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes had enabled See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German invaders first to gain a foothold on the left See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul . In 6o B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the See also:

• AEDUI, HAEDUT

Aedui, who were See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies of Rome,. and had wrested from the See also:

• SEQUANI

Sequani a large portion of their territory . Caesar must have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome the mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C . Ariovistus was inscribed on the See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of the See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends of the Roman people . In 58 B.C. the See also:

• HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol)

Helvetii, a See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic people inhabiting See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, determined to migrate for the shores of the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman territory . According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion . Caesar had but one See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion beyond the Alps . With this he marched to See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva, destroyed the See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge over the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone, fortified the left bank of the See also:

• RIVER

river, and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank . Hastening back to Italy he withdrew his three remaining legions from See also:

• AQUILEIA

Aquileia, raised two more, and, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the Alps by forced See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the See also:

• SAONE

Saone, marching westward . He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini, as it was about to See also:

• CROSS

cross, transported his army across the river in twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direction, and utterly defeated them at See also:

• BIBRACTE

Bibracte (Mont Beuvray) .

Of the survivors a few were settled amongst the Aedui; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should fall into German hands . The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the actual or threatened tyranny of Ariovistus . He at once demanded a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference, which Ariovistus refused, and on See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing that fresh swarms were crossing the Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (See also:

• BESANCON

Besancon) and thence by way of See also:

• BELFORT
• BELFORT, TERRITOIRE
• BELFORT, TERRITORY OF

Belfort into the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over the Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) reached the right bank of the Rhine in safety . These successes roused natural alarm in the minds of the See also:

• BELGAE

Belgae—a confederacy of tribes in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of Gaul, whose civilization was less advanced than that of the Celtae of the centre—and in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 57 B.C . Caesar determined to anticipate the offensive See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement which they were understood to be preparing and marched northwards into the territory of the Remi (about See also:

• REIMS
• REIMS (RHEIMS)

Reims), who alone amongst their neighbours were friendly to Rome . He successfully checked the advance of the enemy at the passage of the See also:

• AISNE

Aisne (between See also:

• LAON

Laon and Reims) and their See also:

• ILL

ill-organized force melted away as he advanced . But the Nervii, and their neighbours further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were crushed only after a desperate struggle on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in the me"See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee . Finally, the Aduatuci (near See also:

• NAMUR
• NAMUR (Flemish, Namen)

Namur) were compelled to submit, and were punished for their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery . In the meantime Caesar's See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant, P . Crassus, received the submission of the tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the campaign almost the whole of Gaul—except the Aquitani in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-west—acknowledged Roman See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty . In 56 B.c., however, the See also:

• VENETI

Veneti of See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany threw off the yoke and detained two of Crassus's See also:

• OFFICERS

officers as hostages . Caesar, who had been hastily summoned from Illyricum, crossed the See also:

• LOIRE

Loire and invaded Brittany, but found that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful See also:

• FLEET

fleet of high, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti .

A fleet was hastily constructed in the See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary of the Loire, and placed under the command of Decimus See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus . The decisive engagement was fought (probably) in the Gulf of See also:

• MORBIHAN

Morbihan and the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans gained the victory by cutting down the enemy's See also:

• RIGGING (A.S. wrigan or wrihan, to clothe)

rigging with See also:

• SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825– )

sickles attached to poles . As a See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the Veneti and sold their people into slavery . Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani . At the close of the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the extreme north-west . In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the See also:

• LOWER

lower Rhine, and invaded the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders . Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pre-See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text that they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their See also:

• HOST

host . His enemies in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be handed over to the Germans . Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right bank . In the remaining See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C . On the first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond a landing on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent . The second expedition consisted of five legions and 2000 See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry, and set out from the See also:

• PORTUS

Portus Itius (See also:

• BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE

Boulogne or Wissant; see T .

See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice See also:

• HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (18o9-1894)

Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of See also:

• JULIUS

Julius Caesar, 1907, later views in Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, May 1909, and H . S . See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, in Eng . Hist . Rev. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv., 1909, p . 115) . Caesar now penetrated into See also:

• MIDDLESEX
• MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, 1ST EARL OF (1575-1645)

Middlesex and crossed the See also:

• THAMES

Thames, but the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince Cassivellaunus with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled to return to Gaul after imposing a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute which was never paid . The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom . Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from Caesar's See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp . At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory . Two of their camps were treacherously attacked . At Aduatuca (near See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under See also:

• AMBIORIX

Ambiorix, while See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in time by Caesar, who was obliged to See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter in Gaul in order to check the spread of the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion .

Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about Troves), revolted and attacked See also:

• LABIENUS

Labienus, but was defeated and killed . The campaign of 53 B . C. was marked .by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped . In the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a chief of the See also:

• SENONES

Senones, was convicted of See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason and flogged to death . Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans), and, on hearing the news, the See also:

• ARVERNI

Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were quickly joined by other tribes, especially the See also:

• BITURIGES

Bituriges, whose See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital was Avaricum (See also:

• BOURGES

Bourges) . Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (See also:

• SENS

Sens), the headquarters of his legions . Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open See also:

• BATTLE

battle, and determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions . Caesar first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then invested Gergovia (near the See also:

• PUY

Puy-de-See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

Dome), the capital of the Arverni, but suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege . Hearing that the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated Vercingetorix near See also:

• DIJON

Dijon and shut him up in See also:

• ALESIA

Alesia (Mont-Auxois) ,which he surrounded with lines of See also:

• CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. circum, round, and vallum, a rampart)

circumvallation . An attempt at See also:

• RELIEF

relief by Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix surrendered . The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in 51 B.C., ending with the siege and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), whose defenders had their hands cut off . Caesar now reduced Gaul to the form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000), and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not broken up .

In the meantime his own position was becoming See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical . In 56 B.C., at the conference of Luca (See also:

• LUCCA (anc. Luca)
• LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena)

Lucca), Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 54 B.C., was renewed, probably for five years, i.e.to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until the 1st of March 5o B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C. would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain imperium, and thus See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C . He was to be elected consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• CANVASS (an older spelling of " canvas ")

canvass, he was by See also:

• SPECIAL

special enactment dispensed from its provisions . But in 54 B.C . Julia, the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C . Crassus was killed at Carrhae . Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the senate . In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law de jure magistratuum which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of 49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private person, and thus liable to be called to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for his unconstitutional acts . Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he sustained by enormous bribes . His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C . Scribonius See also:

• CURIO, OAIUS SCRIBONIUS

Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the senate to refrain from extreme See also:

• MEASURES

measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as Caesar, should resign the imperium . But all attempts at negotiation failed, and in January 49 B.C., See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial law having been proclaimed on the proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius fled to Caesar, who crossed the See also:

• RUBICON

Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, exclaiming " Alea jacta est." Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed in See also:

• CAMPANIA

Campania, and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, See also:

• AFRANIUS, LUCIUS

Afranius and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in The Civil Italy .

Caesar was soon joined by two legions from war . Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic coast, overtaking Pompey at See also:

• BRUNDISIUM (Gr. Bpevrkwv, mod. Brindisi)

Brundisium (See also:

• BRINDISI (anc. Brundisium, q.v.)

Brindisi), but failing to prevent him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of his name was greatest . Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed " I am going to Spain to fight an army without a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, and thence to the East to fight a general without an army." He carried out the first part of this programme with marvellous rapidity . He reached Ilerda (See also:

• LERIDA

Lerida) on the 23rd of See also:

• JUNE

June and, after extricating his army from a perilous situation, outmanoeuvred Pompey's lieutenants and received their submission on the 2nd of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August . Returning to Rome, he held the dictatorship for eleven days, was elected consul for 48 B.C., and set See also:

• SAIL

sail for See also:

• EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS

Epirus at Brundisium on the 4th of January . He attempted to invest Pompey's lines at Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), though his opponent's force was See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double that of his own, and was defeated with considerable loss . He now marched east-wards, in order if possible to intercept the reinforcements which Pompey's father-in-law, Scipio, was bringing up; but Pompe* Expeditions to Britain . Break-up of the Coalition . was able to effect a junction with this force and descended into the plain of See also:

• THESSALY

Thessaly, where at the battle of . Pharsalus he was decisively defeated and fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, who learnt of his See also:

• RIVAL

rival's murder on landing at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria . Here he remained for nine months, fascinated (if the story be true) by See also:

• CLEOPATRA

Cleopatra, and almost lost his life in an emeule . In June 47 B.C. he proceeded to the East and Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, where he " came, saw and conquered " Pharnaces, son of See also:

• MITHRADATES

Mithradates the Great, at Zela .

Returning to Italy, he quelled a See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

mutiny of the legions (including the faithful Tenth) in Campania, and crossed to See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, where a republican army of fourteen legions under Scipio was cut to pieces at See also:

• THAPSUS

Thapsus (6th of See also:

• APRIL

April 46 B.c.) . Here most of the republican leaders were killed and Cato committed See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide . On the 26th to 29th July Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph and received the dictatorship for ten years . In See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, however, he was obliged to sail for Spain, where the sons of Pompey still held out . On the 17th of March 45 B.C. they were crushed at Munda . Caesar returned to Rome in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, and six months later (15th of March 44 B.C.) was murdered in the senate house at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of Pompey's statue . It was remarked by See also:

• SENECA

Seneca that amongst the murderers of Caesar were to be found more of his friends than of his enemies . We can account for this only by emphasizing the fact that the form of Caesar's government became as time went on more undisguised in its See also:

• ABSOLUTISM

absolutism, while the honours conferred upon him seemed designed to raise him above the rest of humanity . It is explained else-where (see RoME: See also:

• HISTORY

History, Ancient) that Caesar's power was exercised under the form of the dictatorship . In the first instance (autumn of 49 B.C.) this was conferred upon him as the only See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the constitutional deadlock created by the See also:

• FLIGHT

flight of the magistrates and senate, in order that elections (including that of Caesar himself to the consulship) might be held in due course . For this there were republican precedents . In 48 B.C. he was created dictator for the second time, probably with constituent powers and for an undefined See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, according to the dangerous and unpopular precedent of Sulla .

In May 46 B.C. a third dictatorship was conferred on Caesar, this time for ten years and apparently as a yearly office, so that he became Dictator IV. in May 45 B.C . Finally, before the 15th of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 44 B.c., this was exchanged for a life-dictatorship . Not only was this a See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction in terms, since the dictatorship was by tradition a makeshift justified only when the state had to be carried through a serious crisis, but it involved military rule in Italy and the permanent suspension of the constitutional guarantees, such as intercessio and provocatio, by which the liberties of Romans were protected . That Caesar held the imperium which he enjoyed as dictator to be distinct in See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind from that of the republican magistrates he indicated by placing the See also:

• TERM

term imperator at the head of his titles.' Besides the dictator-See also:

• SHIP

ship, Caesar held the consulship in each year of his reign except 47 B.C . (when no curule magistrates were elected save for the last three months of the year) ; and he was moreover invested by special enactments with a number of other privileges and powers; of these the most important was the tribunicia potestas, which we may believe to have been free from the limits of place (i.e . Rome) and collegiality . Thus, too, he was granted the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole right of making See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace and war, and of disposing of the funds in the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury of the state .2 Save for the title of dictator, which undoubtedly carried unpopular associations and was formally abolished on the proposal of Antony after Caesar's death, this cumulation of powers has little to distinguish it from the Principate of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus; and the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of the perpetual dictatorship would hardly by itself suffice to account for the murder of Caesar . But there are signs that in the last six months of his life he aspired not only to a See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy in name as well as in fact, but also to a divinity which Romans should ' Suetonius, Jul . 76, errs in stating that he used the title imperator as a praenomen . 2 The statement of Dio and Suetonius, that a general curs legum et morum was conferred on Caesar in 46 B.c., is rejected by Mommsen . It is possible that it may have some See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation in the terms of the law establishing his third dictatorship.acknowledge as well as Greeks, Orientals and barbarians . His statue was set up beside those of the seven See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Rome, and he adopted the throne of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, the See also:

• SCEPTRE

sceptre of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory and the embroidered robe which tradition ascribed to them .

He allowed his supporters to suggest the offer of the See also:

• REGAL

regal title by putting in circulation an See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle according to which it was destined for a king of Rome to subdue the Parthians, and when at the See also:

• LUPERCALIA

Lupercalia (15th February 44 B. c.) Antony set the diadem on his head he rejected the offer See also:

• HALF

half-heartedly on account of the groans of the people . His See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image was carried in the See also:

• PAMPA, LA

pampa circensis amongst those of the immortal gods, and his statue set up in the temple of See also:

• QUIRINUS

Quirinus with the inscription " To the Unconquerable See also:

• GOD

God." A college of Luperci, with the surname Juliani, was instituted in his See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour and flamines were created as priests of his godhead . This was intolerable to the aristocratic republicans, to whom it seemed becoming that victorious commanders should accept divine honours at the hands of Greeks and Asiatics, but unpardonable that Romans should offer the same See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship to a Roman . Thus Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind in considering his See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of legislative and administrative reform . Some account of this is given elsewhere (see RoME: History, Ancient), but it 4egis- tive may be well to single out from the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of his measures reforms . (some of which, such as the restoration of exiles and the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of proscribed persons, were dictated by political expediency, while others, such as his financial proposals for the relief of debtors, and the steps which he took to restore Italian See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, were of the nature of palliatives) those which have a permanent significance as indicating his grasp of imperial problems . The Social War had brought to the inhabitants of Italy as far as the Po the privileges of Roman citizenship; it remained to extend this See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift to the Transpadane Italians, to establish a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform system of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration and to devise representative institutions by which at least some See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice in the government of Rome might be permitted to her new citizens . This last conception lay beyond the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon of Caesar, as of all ancient statesmen, but his first act on gaining See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of Italy was to enfranchise the Transpadanes, whose claims he had consistently advocated, and in 45 B.C. he passed the Lex Julia Municipalis, an act of which considerable fragments are inscribed on two See also:

• BRONZE

bronze tables found at See also:

• HERACLEA

Heraclea near See also:

• TARENTUM
• TARENTUM (Gr. rapas)

Tarentum.3 This law deals inter alia with the See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police and the sanitary arrangements of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Rome, and hence it has been argued by Mommsen that it was Caesar's intention to reduce Rome to the level of a municipal See also:

• TOWN

town . But it is not likely that such is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . Caesar made no far-reaching modifications in the government of the city, such as were afterwards carried out by Augustus, and the presence in the Lex Julia Municipalis of the clauses referred to is an example of the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• PROCESS

process of " tacking " (legislation per saturam, as it was called by the Romans) . The law deals with the constitution of the local senates, for whose members qualifications of age (30 years) and military service are laid down, while persons who have suffered conviction for various specified offences, or who are insolvent, or who carry on discreditable or immoral trades are excluded . It also provides that the local magistrates shall take a See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of the citizens at the same time as the census takes place in Rome, and send the registers to Rome within sixty days .

The existing fragments tell us little as to the decentralization of the functions of government, but from the Lex Rubria, which applies to the Transpadane districts enfranchised by Caesar (it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained nominally a province until 42 B.C.) we gather that considerable powers of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction were reserved to the municipal magistrates . But Caesar wa9 not content with framing a uniform system of local government 3 Since the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of a fragmentary municipal See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter at Tarentum (see RoME), dating from a period shortly after the Social War, doubts have been See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast on the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the tables of Heraclea with Caesar's municipal See also:

• STATUTE

statute . It has been questioned whether Caesar passed such a law, since the Lex Julia Municipalis mentioned in an inscription of See also:

• PATAVIUM (mod. Padova, Eng. Padua, q.v.)

Patavium (See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua) may have been a local charter . See Legras, La Table latine d'Heraclee (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1907) . Caesar's dictator-ship . 942 for Italy . He was the first to carry out on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale those plans of transmarine colonization whose inception was due to the Gracchi . As consul in 59 B.C . Caesar had established colonies Colonies, of veterans in Campania under the Lex Julia Agraria, and had even then laid down rules for the foundation of such communities . As dictator he planted numerous colonies both in the eastern and western provinces, notably at See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth and See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage . Mommsen interprets this policy as signifying that " the rule of the See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban community of Rome over the shores of the Mediterranean was at an end," and says that the first act of the " new Mediterranean state " was " to atone for the two greatest outrages which that urban community had perpetrated on civilization." This, however, cannot be admitted . The sites of Caesar's colonies were selected for their commercial value, and that the citizens of Rome should cease to be rulers of the Mediterranean See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin could never have entered into Caesar's mind .

The colonists were in many cases veterans who had served under Caesar, in others members of the city See also:

• PROLETARIAT, or PROLETARIATE

proletariat . We possess the charter of the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony planted at Urso in See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Spain under the name of Colonia Julia Genetiva Urbanorum . Of the two latter titles, the first is derived from the name of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian house, the second indicates that the colonists were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the plebs See also:

• URBANA

urbana . Accordingly, we find that free See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth is not, as in Italy, a necessary qualification for municipal office . By such foundations Caesar began the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension to the provinces of that Roman civilization which the republic had carried to the See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds of the Italian See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . Lack of time alone prevented him from carrying into effect such projects as the piercing of the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

Isthmus of Corinth, whose See also:

• OBJECT

object was to promote See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and intercourse throughout the Roman dominions, and we are told that at the time of his death he was contemplating the extension of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire to its natural frontiers, and was about to engage in a war with See also:

• PARTHIA

Parthia with the object of carrying Roman arms to the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates . Above all, he was determined that the empire should be governed in the true sense of the word and no longer exploited by its rulers, and he kept a strict control over the legati, who, under the form of military subordination, were responsible to him for the administration of their provinces . Caesar's writings are treated under LATIN LITERATURE . It is sufficient here to say that of those preserved to us the The See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn- seven books See also:

• COMMENTARII (Lat. = Gr. broµvijµara)

Commentarii de See also:

• BELLO, ANDRES (1781–1865)

bello Gallico appear to aientarles. have been written in 51 B.C. and carry the narrative of the Gallic See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns down to the close of the previous year (the eighth See also:

• BOOK

book, written by A . See also:

• HIRTIUS, AULUS (c. 90-43 B.C.)

Hirtius, is a supplement See also:

• RELATING

relating the events of 51-50 B.C.), while the three books De bello civili record the struggle between Caesar and Pompey (49-48 B.C.) . Their veracity was impeached in ancient times by Asinius See also:

• POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 B.C.–A.D. 5; according to some, 75 B.C.–A.D. 4)

Pollio and has often been called in question by modern critics . The Gallic War, though its publication was doubtless timed to impress on the mind of the Roman people the great services rendered by Caesar to Rome, stands the test of See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism as far as it is possible to apply it, and the accuracy of its narrative has never been seriously shaken .

The Civil War, especially in its opening chapters is, however, not altogether free from traces of misrepresentation . With respect to the first moves made in the struggle, and the negotiations for peace at the outset of hostilities, Caesar's account sometimes conflicts with the testimony of Cicero's See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence or implies movements which cannot be reconciled with See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical facts . We have but few fragments of Caesar's other See also:

• WORKS

works, whether political See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets such as the Anticato, grammatical See also:

• TREATISES

treatises (De Analogia) or poems . All authorities agree in describing him as a consummate orator . Cicero (See also:

• BRUT, BRUTE

Brut . 22) wrote: de Caesare ita judico, illum omnium fere oratorum Latine loqui elegantissime, while See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian (x . 1 . 114) says that had he practised at the See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar he would have been the only serious rival of Cicero . The See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict of historians on Caesar has always been coloured by their political sympathies . All have recognised his corn-See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character. manding See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius, and few have failed to do See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice to his personal See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm and magnanimity,which almost won the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of Cicero, who rarely appealed in vain to his clemency . Indeed, he was singularly tolerant of all but intellectual opposition . His private life was not free from See also:

• SCANDAL

scandal, especially in his youth, but it is difficult to believe the worst pf the tales which were circulated by his opponents, e.g. as to his relations with Nicomedes of See also:

• BITHYNIA (BtOvpta)

Bithynia .

As to his public character, however, no agreement is possible between those who regard Caesarism as a great political creation, and those who hold that Caesar by destroying See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty lost a great opportunity and crushed the sense of dignity in mankind . The latter view is unfortunately confirmed by the undoubted fact that Caesar treated with scant respect the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical institutions of Rome, which with their magnificent traditions might still have been the See also:

• ORGANS

organs of true political life . He increased the number of senators to 900 and introduced provincials into that See also:

• BODY

body; but instead of making it into a See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of the empire, representative of its various races and nationalities, he treated it with studied contempt, and Cicero writes that his own name had been set down as the proposer of decrees of which he knew nothing, conferring the title of king on potentates of whom he had never heard . A similar treatment was meted out to the ancient magistracies of the republic; and thus began the process by which the emperors undermined the self-respect of their subjects and eventually came to rule over a nation of slaves . Few men, indeed, have partaken as freely of the See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration of genius as Julius Caesar; few have suffered more disastrously from its illusions . See further ROME: History, ii . " The Republic," Period C ad fin . See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval Legends . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the story of Caesar did not undergo such extraordinary transformations as befell the history of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the Great and the Theban See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend . See also:

• LUCAN

Lucan was regularly read in medieval See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, and the general facts of Caesar's life were too well known . He was generally, by a curious See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error, regarded as the first See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor of Rome,' and representing as he did in the popular mind the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of Rome, by an easy transition he became a See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . Thus, in a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French pseudo-historic See also:

• ROMANCE

romance, See also:

• LES

Les Faits See also:

• DES

des Romains (c .

1223), he receives the honour of a bishopric . His name was not usually associated with the marvellous, and the See also:

• TROUVERE

trouvere of Huon de See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux outstepped the usual sober tradition when he made See also:

• OBERON (Fr. Alberon, Auberon, Ger. Alberich, i.e. rich, Goth. reiks, " ruler "—cf. Lat. rex—and O.H. and M.H. Ger. pl. elbi, elbe, " elves," pl. alp)

Oberon the son of Julius Caesar and See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan la See also:

• FAY, ANDRAS (1786–1864)

Fay . About 1240 Jehan de Tuim composed a See also:

• PROSE

prose Hystore de Julius Cesar (ed . F . Settegast, See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle, 1881) based on the Pharsalia of Lucan, and the commentaries of Caesar (on the Civil War) and his continuators (on the Alexandrine, See also:

• AFRICAN

African and See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish wars) . The author gives a romantic description of the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting with Cleopatra, with an interpolated dissertation on amour See also:

• COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621–1676)

courtois as understood by the trouveres . Brunetto See also:

• LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. 1210-C. 1294)

Latini, Tresor: " Et ainsi Julius Cesar fu li premiers empereres des Romains." The Hystore was turned into See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse (alexandrines) by Jacot de See also:

• FOREST

Forest (latter part of the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century) under the title of Roman de Julius Cesar . A prose compilation by an unknown author, Les Faits des Romains (c . 1225), has little resemblance to the last two works, although mainly derived from the same See also:

• SOURCES

sources . It was originally intended to contain a history of the twelve Caesars, but concluded with the murder of the dictator, and in some See also:

• MSS

MSS. bears the title of Li livres de Cesar . Its popularity is proved by the numerous MSS. in which it is pre-served and by three See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations into Italian . A Mistaire de Julius Cesar is said to have been represented at See also:

• AMBOISE
• AMBOISE, GEORGES

Amboise in 1500 before See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XII .

See A . See also:

• GRAF, ARTURO (1848– )
• GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815–1869)

Graf, See also:

• ROMA

Roma nella memoria e nella imaginazione del medio evo, i. ch . 8 (1882-1883); P . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer in Romania, xiv . (Paris, 1885), where the Faits des Romains is analysed at length; A . See also:

• DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT
• DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643–1670)

Duval in Histoire litteraire de la See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, xix . (1838) ; L . See also:

• CONSTANS, JEAN ANTOINE ERNEST (1833– )

Constans in See also:

• PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART

Petit de Jullevilles' His'. de la langue et de la lift. francaise, i . (1896) ; H . Wesemann, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Casarfabeln des Mittelalters (See also:

• LOWENBERG

Lowenberg, 1879) . (M .