See also:

• GAIUS

GAIUS See also:

• JULIUS

JULIUS See also:

• GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

CAESAR (102—44 B.c.)  , the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ROMAN

Roman soldier and statesman, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born on the 12th of See also:

• JULY

July 102 B.c.1 His See also:

• FAMILY

family was of patrician See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and traced a legendary descent from See also:

• IULUS

Iulus, the founder of See also:

• ALBA

Alba Longa, son of See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas and See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of See also:

• VENUS

Venus and See also:

• ANCHISES

Anchises . See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar made the most of his divine ancestry and built a See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple in his See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

forum to Venus Genetrix; but his patrician descent was of little importance in politics and disqualified Caesar from holding the tribunate, an See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office to which, as a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the popular party, he would naturally have aspired . The Julii Caesares, however, had also acquired the new nobilitas, which belonged to holders of the great magistracies . Caesar's See also:

• UNCLE

uncle was See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul in 91 B.C., and his See also:

• FATHER

father held the praetorship . Most of the family seem to have belonged to the senatorial party (optimates) ; but Caesar himself was from the first a popularis . The determining See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor is no doubt to be sought in his relationship with C . See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius, the See also:

• HUSBAND

husband of his aunt Julia . Caesar was born in the See also:

• YEAR

year of Marius's first great victory over the Teutones, and as he See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up, inspired by the 'traditions of the great soldier's career, attached himself to his party and its fortunes . Of his See also:

• EDUCATION

education we know scarcely anything . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother, See also:

• AURELIA, VIA

Aurelia, belonged to a distinguished family, and See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus (See also:

• DIAL

Dial. de Orat. See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii.) couples her name with that of See also:

• CORNELIA (end cent. Bc.)

Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, as an example of the Roman matron In spite of the explicit statements of Suetonius, See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch and See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian that Caesar was in his fifty-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth year at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of his See also:

• MURDER

murder, it is, as See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen has shown, practically certain that he was born in 102 B.c., since he held the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief offices of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, beginning with the aedileship in 65 B.c., and the legal See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age for this was fixed at 37-38.whose disciplina and severitas formed her son for the duties of a soldier and statesman . His See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor was M . See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius Gnipho, a native of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul (by which Cisalpine Gaul may be meant), who is said to have been equally learned in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin literature, and to have set up in later years a school of See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric which was attended by See also:

• CICERO

Cicero in his praetorship 66 B.c .

It is possible that Caesar may have derived from him his See also:

• INTEREST

interest in Gaul and its See also:

• PEOPLE

people and his sympathy with the claims of the Romanized Gauls of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy to See also:

• POLITICAL

political rights . In his sixteenth year (87 B.c.) Caesar lost his father, and assumed the toga virilis as the token of manhood . The social See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war (90—89 B.C.) had been brought to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close by the enfranchisement of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome's See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian subjects; and the See also:

• CIVIL

civil war which followed it led, after the departure of See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla for the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, to the temporary See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the populares, led by Marius and See also:

• CINNA
• CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS

Cinna, and the indiscriminate See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of their political opponents, including both of Caesar's uncles . Caesar was at once marked out for high distinction, being created Jlamen Dialis or See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter . In the following year (which saw the See also:

• DEATH

death of Marius) Caesar, rejecting a proposed See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage with a wealthy capitalist's heiress, sought and obtained the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and thus became further identified with the ruling party . His career was soon after interrupted by the triumphant return of Sulla (82 B.c.), who ordered him to See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce his wife, and on his refusal deprived him of his See also:

• PROPERTY

property and priesthood and was induced to spare his See also:

• LIFE

life only by the intercession of his aristocratic relatives and the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of vestal virgins . Released from his religious obligations, Caesar now (81 B.C.) See also:

• LEFT

left Rome for the East and served his first See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign under Minucius Thermus, who was engaged in stamping out the embers of resistance to Roman See also:

• RULE

rule in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and received from him the " civic See also:

• CROWN

crown " for saving a See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-soldier's life at the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm of Mytilene . In 78 B.C. he was serving under Servilius Isauricus against the Cilician pirates when the See also:

• NEWS

news of Sulla's death reached him and he at once returned to Rome . Refusing to entangle himself in the abortive.and equivocal schemes of See also:

• LEPIDUS

Lepidus to subvert the Sullan constitution, Caesar took up the only See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of political warfare left to the opposition by prosecuting two senatorial See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors, Cn . See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius See also:

• DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS

Dolabella (in 77 B.C.) and C . Antonius (in 76 B.c.) for See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion in the provinces of See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia and See also:

• GREECE

Greece, and though he lost both cases, probably convinced the See also:

• WORLD

world at large of the corruption of the senatorial tribunals . After these failures Caesar determined to take no active See also:

• PART

part in politics for a time, and retraced his steps to the East in order to study rhetoric under Molon, at See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes .

On the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey thither he was caught by pirates, whom he treated with consummate nonchalance while awaiting his See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom, threatening to return and crucify them; when released he lost no time in carrying out his See also:

• THREAT

threat . Whilst he was studying at Rhodes the third Mithradatic War See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, and Caesar at once raised a See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps of See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers and helped to secure the wavering See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty of the provincials of Asia . When See also:

• LUCULLUS

Lucullus assumed the command of the Roman troops in Asia, Caesar returned to Rome, to find that he had been elected to a seat on the college of pontifices lef t vacant by the death of his uncle, C . Aurelius See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

Cotta . He was likewise elected first of the six tribuni militum a populo, but we hear nothing of his service in this capacity . Suetonius tells us that he threw himself into the agitation for the restoration of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the tribunate curtailed by Sulla, and that he secured the passing of a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty in favour of the partisans of See also:

• SERTORIUS, QUINTUS

Sertorius . He was not, however, destined to See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass the downfall of the Sullan regime; the crisis of the Slave War placed the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey and See also:

• CRASSUS (literally " dense," " thick," " fat ")

Crassus, who in 70 B.C. swept away the safeguards of senatorial ascendancy, restored the initiative in legislation to the tribunes, and replaced the Equestrian order, i.e. the capitalists, in partial See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• JURY

jury-courts . This judicial reform (or rather See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise) was the See also:

• WORK

work of Caesar's uncle, L . Aurelius Cotta . Caesar himself, however, gained no See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . In 69 B.C. he served as See also:

• QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate)

quaestor under Antistius Vetus, See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Hither See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and on his way back to Rome (according to Suetonius) promoted a revolutionary agitation See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early years . amongst the Transpadanes for the acquisition of full political rights, which had been denied them by Sulla's See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement .

Caesar was now best known as a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, celebrated for his debts and his intrigues; in politics he had no force behind him See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that of the discredited party of the populares, Opposition reduced to lending a passive support to Pompey and to the Optlmates . Crassus . But as soon as the proved incompetence of the senatorial See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government had brought about the See also:

• MISSION

mission of Pompey to the East with the almost unlimited powers conferred on him by the Gabinian and Manilian See also:

• LAWS

laws of 67 and 66 B.C . (see POMPEY), Caesar plunged into a network of political intrigues which it is no longer possible to unravel . In his public acts he lost no opportunity of upholding the democratic tradition . Already in 68 B.C. he had paraded the bust of Marius at his aunt's funeral; in 65 B.C., as See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule See also:

• AEDILE (Lat. aedilis)

aedile, he restored the trophies of Marius to their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place on the Capitol; in 64 B.C., as See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the murder See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission, he brought three of Sulla's executioners to trial, and in 63 B.C. he caused the ancient See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of trial by popular See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly to be revived against the murderer of See also:

• SATURNINUS, LUCIUS APPULEIUS

Saturninus . By these means, and by the lavishness of his See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure on public entertainments as aedile, he acquired such popularity with the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs that he was elected See also:

• PONTIFEX

pontifex See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

maximus in 63 B.C. against such distinguished rivals as Q . Lutatius See also:

• CATULUS

Catulus and P . Servilius Isauricus . But all this was on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface . There can be no doubt that Caesar was cognizant of some at least of the threads of See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy which were See also:

• WOVEN

woven during Pompey's See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence in the East . According to one See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, the enfants perdus of the revolutionary party—See also:

• CATILINE [Lucius SERGIUS CATILINA] (C. I08-62 B.C.)

Catiline, Autronius and others—designed to assassinate the consuls on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 65, and make Crassus See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator, with Caesar as See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse .

We are also told that a public proposal was made to confer upon him an extraordinary military command in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, not without a legitimate See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king and nominally under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Rome . An equally abortive See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to create a counterpoise to Pompey's See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was made by the See also:

• TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribune, from classical Lat. tribunal)

tribune See also:

• RULLUS, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS

Rullus at the close of 64 B.C . He proposed to create a See also:

• LAND

land commission with very wide powers, which would in effect have been wielded by Caesar and Crassus . The See also:

• BILL

bill was defeated by Cicero, consul in 63 B.C . In the same year the conspiracy associated with the name of Catiline came to a See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . The See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of complicity was freely levelled at Caesar, and indeed was hinted at by See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato in the great debate in the senate . But Caesar, for party reasons, was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to oppose the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the conspirators; while Crassus, who shared in the See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation, was the richest man in Rome and the least likely to further anarchist plots . Both, however, doubtless knew as much and as little as suited their convenience of the doings of the left wing of their party, which served to aggravate the embarrassments of the government . As See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

praetor (62 B.c.) Caesar supported proposals in Pompey's favour which brought him into violent collision with the senate . This was a master-stroke of See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics, as Pompey's return was imminent . Thus when Pompey landed in Italy and disbanded his See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army he found in Caesar a natural ally . After some delay, said to have been caused by the exigencies of his creditors, which were met by a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of £200,000 from Crassus, Caesar left Rome for his province of Further Spain, where he was able to retrieve his See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial position, and to See also:

• LAY

lay the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of a military reputation .

He returned to Rome in 6o B.C. to find that the senate had sacrificed the support of the capitalists (which Cicero had worked so hard to secure), and had finally alienated Pompey by refusing to ratify his acts and See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant lands to his soldiers . Caesar at once approached both Pompey and Crassus, who alike detested the existing See also:

• SYSTEM

system of government but were personally at variance, and succeeded in persuading them to forget their See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel and join him in a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition which should put an end to the rule of the See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy . He even made a generous, though unsuccessful, endeavour to enlist the support of Cicero . The so-called First Triumvirate was formed, and constitutional government ceased to exist save in name . The first See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize which See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to Caesar was the consulship, to secure which he forewent the triumph which he had earned in Spain . His colleague was M . See also:

• BIBULUS

Bibulus, who belonged to thestraitest See also:

• SECT

sect of the senatorial oligarchy and, together with his party, placed every See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of constitutional obstruc- coalition tionin the path of Caesar's legislation . Caesar, however, with See also:

• PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524–1606)

Pont-overrode all opposition, mustering Pompey's veterans pey and to drive his colleague from the forum . Bibulus became Crassus. a virtual prisoner in his own See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, and Caesar placed himself outside the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . Thus the See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme of the coalition was carried through . Pompey was satisfied by the ratification of his acts in Asia, and by the See also:

• ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE

assignment of the Campanian state domains to his veterans, the capitalists (with whose interests Crassus was identified) had their bargain for the farming of the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic revenues cancelled, See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy Auletes received the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of his See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title to the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Egypt (for a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration amounting to £1,500,000), and a fresh See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was passed for preventing extortion by provincial governors . It was now all-important for Caesar to secure See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical irresponsibility by obtaining a military command .

The senate, in virtue of its constitutional See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative, had assigned Gallic as the provincia of the consuls of 59 B.c.the supervision, See also:

• WARS

wars. of roads and forests in Italy . Caesar secured the passing of a legislative enactment conferring upon himself the government of Cisalpine Gaul and See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria for five years, and exacted from the terrorized senate the addition of Transalpine Gaul, where, as he well knew, a storm was See also:

• BREWING

brewing which threatened to sweep away Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization beyond the See also:

• ALPS

Alps . The mutual jealousies of the Gallic tribes had enabled See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German invaders first to gain a foothold on the left See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, and then to obtain a predominant position in Central Gaul . In 6o B.C. the German king Ariovistus had defeated the See also:

• AEDUI, HAEDUT

Aedui, who were See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies of Rome,. and had wrested from the See also:

• SEQUANI

Sequani a large portion of their territory . Caesar must have seen that the Germans were preparing to dispute with Rome the mastery of Gaul; but it was necessary to gain time, and in 59 B.C . Ariovistus was inscribed on the See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of the See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends of the Roman people . In 58 B.C. the See also:

• HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol)

Helvetii, a See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic people inhabiting See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, determined to migrate for the shores of the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic and demanded a passage through Roman territory . According to Caesar's statement they numbered 368,000, and it was necessary at all hazards to save the Roman province from the invasion . Caesar had but one See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion beyond the Alps . With this he marched to See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva, destroyed the See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge over the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone, fortified the left bank of the See also:

• RIVER

river, and forced the Helvetii to follow the right bank . Hastening back to Italy he withdrew his three remaining legions from See also:

• AQUILEIA

Aquileia, raised two more, and, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the Alps by forced See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

marches, arrived in the neighbourhood of See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons to find that three-fourths of the Helvetii had already crossed the See also:

• SAONE

Saone, marching westward . He destroyed their rearguard, the Tigurini, as it was about to See also:

• CROSS

cross, transported his army across the river in twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, pursued the Helvetii in a northerly direction, and utterly defeated them at See also:

• BIBRACTE

Bibracte (Mont Beuvray) .

Of the survivors a few were settled amongst the Aedui; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest were sent back to Switzerland lest it should fall into German hands . The Gallic chiefs now appealed to Caesar to deliver them from the actual or threatened tyranny of Ariovistus . He at once demanded a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference, which Ariovistus refused, and on See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing that fresh swarms were crossing the Rhine, marched with all haste to Vesontio (See also:

• BESANCON

Besancon) and thence by way of See also:

• BELFORT
• BELFORT, TERRITOIRE
• BELFORT, TERRITORY OF

Belfort into the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace, where he gained a decisive victory over the Germans, of whom only a few (including Ariovistus) reached the right bank of the Rhine in safety . These successes roused natural alarm in the minds of the See also:

• BELGAE

Belgae—a confederacy of tribes in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of Gaul, whose civilization was less advanced than that of the Celtae of the centre—and in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 57 B.C . Caesar determined to anticipate the offensive See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement which they were understood to be preparing and marched northwards into the territory of the Remi (about See also:

• REIMS
• REIMS (RHEIMS)

Reims), who alone amongst their neighbours were friendly to Rome . He successfully checked the advance of the enemy at the passage of the See also:

• AISNE

Aisne (between See also:

• LAON

Laon and Reims) and their See also:

• ILL

ill-organized force melted away as he advanced . But the Nervii, and their neighbours further to the north-west, remained to be dealt with, and were crushed only after a desperate struggle on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Sambre, in which Caesar was forced to expose his See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in the me"See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee . Finally, the Aduatuci (near See also:

• NAMUR
• NAMUR (Flemish, Namen)

Namur) were compelled to submit, and were punished for their subsequent treachery by being sold wholesale into See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery . In the meantime Caesar's See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant, P . Crassus, received the submission of the tribes of the north-east, so that by the close of the campaign almost the whole of Gaul—except the Aquitani in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-west—acknowledged Roman See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty . In 56 B.c., however, the See also:

• VENETI

Veneti of See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany threw off the yoke and detained two of Crassus's See also:

• OFFICERS

officers as hostages . Caesar, who had been hastily summoned from Illyricum, crossed the See also:

• LOIRE

Loire and invaded Brittany, but found that he could make no headway without destroying the powerful See also:

• FLEET

fleet of high, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed boats like floating castles possessed by the Veneti .

A fleet was hastily constructed in the See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary of the Loire, and placed under the command of Decimus See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus . The decisive engagement was fought (probably) in the Gulf of See also:

• MORBIHAN

Morbihan and the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans gained the victory by cutting down the enemy's See also:

• RIGGING (A.S. wrigan or wrihan, to clothe)

rigging with See also:

• SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825– )

sickles attached to poles . As a See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment for their treachery, Caesar put to death the senate of the Veneti and sold their people into slavery . Meanwhile Sabinus was victorious on the northern coasts, and Crassus subdued the Aquitani . At the close of the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season Caesar raided the territories of the Morini and Menapii in the extreme north-west . In 55 B.C. certain German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, crossed the See also:

• LOWER

lower Rhine, and invaded the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders . Caesar at once marched to meet them, and, on the pre-See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text that they had violated a truce, seized their leaders who had come to parley with him, and then surprised and practically destroyed their See also:

• HOST

host . His enemies in Rome accused him of treachery, and Cato even proposed that he should be handed over to the Germans . Caesar meanwhile constructed his famous bridge over the Rhine in ten days, and made a demonstration of force on the right bank . In the remaining See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks of the summer he made his first expedition to See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, and this was followed by a second crossing in 54 B.C . On the first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and effected little beyond a landing on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent . The second expedition consisted of five legions and 2000 See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry, and set out from the See also:

• PORTUS

Portus Itius (See also:

• BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE

Boulogne or Wissant; see T .

See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice See also:

• HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (18o9-1894)

Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of See also:

• JULIUS

Julius Caesar, 1907, later views in Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, May 1909, and H . S . See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, in Eng . Hist . Rev. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv., 1909, p . 115) . Caesar now penetrated into See also:

• MIDDLESEX
• MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, 1ST EARL OF (1575-1645)

Middlesex and crossed the See also:

• THAMES

Thames, but the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince Cassivellaunus with his war-chariots harassed the Roman columns, and Caesar was compelled to return to Gaul after imposing a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute which was never paid . The next two years witnessed the final struggle of the Gauls for freedom . Just before the second crossing to Britain, Dumnorix, an Aeduan chief, had been detected in treasonable intrigues, and killed in an attempt to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from Caesar's See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp . At the close of the campaign Caesar distributed his legions over a somewhat wide extent of territory . Two of their camps were treacherously attacked . At Aduatuca (near See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle) a newly-raised legion was cut to pieces by the Eburones under See also:

• AMBIORIX

Ambiorix, while See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus Cicero was besieged in the neighbourhood of Namur and only just relieved in time by Caesar, who was obliged to See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter in Gaul in order to check the spread of the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion .

Indutiomarus, indeed, chief of the Treveri (about Troves), revolted and attacked See also:

• LABIENUS

Labienus, but was defeated and killed . The campaign of 53 B . C. was marked .by a second crossing of the Rhine and by the destruction of the Eburones, whose leader Ambiorix, however, escaped . In the autumn Caesar held a conference at Durocortorum (Reims), and Acco, a chief of the See also:

• SENONES

Senones, was convicted of See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason and flogged to death . Early in 52 B.C. some Roman traders were massacred at Cenabum (See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans), and, on hearing the news, the See also:

• ARVERNI

Arverni revolted under Vercingetorix and were quickly joined by other tribes, especially the See also:

• BITURIGES

Bituriges, whose See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital was Avaricum (See also:

• BOURGES

Bourges) . Caesar hastened back from Italy, slipped past Vercingetorix and reached Agedincum (See also:

• SENS

Sens), the headquarters of his legions . Vercingetorix saw that Caesar could not be met in open See also:

• BATTLE

battle, and determined to concentrate his forces in a few strong positions . Caesar first besieged and took Avaricum, whose occupants were massacred, and then invested Gergovia (near the See also:

• PUY

Puy-de-See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

Dome), the capital of the Arverni, but suffered a severe repulse and was forced to raise the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege . Hearing that the Roman province was threatened, he marched westward, defeated Vercingetorix near See also:

• DIJON

Dijon and shut him up in See also:

• ALESIA

Alesia (Mont-Auxois) ,which he surrounded with lines of See also:

• CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. circum, round, and vallum, a rampart)

circumvallation . An attempt at See also:

• RELIEF

relief by Vercassivellaunus was defeated after a desperate struggle and Vercingetorix surrendered . The struggle was over except for some isolated operations in 51 B.C., ending with the siege and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Uxellodunum (Puy d'Issolu), whose defenders had their hands cut off . Caesar now reduced Gaul to the form of a province, fixing the tribute at 40,000,000 sesterces (£350,000), and dealing liberally with the conquered tribes, whose cantons were not broken up .

In the meantime his own position was becoming See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical . In 56 B.C., at the conference of Luca (See also:

• LUCCA (anc. Luca)
• LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena)

Lucca), Caesar, Pompey and Crassus had renewed their agreement, and Caesar's command in Gaul, which would have expired on the 1st of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 54 B.C., was renewed, probably for five years, i.e.to the 1st of March 49 B.C., and it was enacted that the question of his successor should not be discussed until the 1st of March 5o B.C., by which time the provincial commands for 49 B.C. would have been assigned, so that Caesar would retain imperium, and thus See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from persecution, until the end of 49 B.C . He was to be elected consul for 48 B.C., and, as the law prescribed a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• CANVASS (an older spelling of " canvas ")

canvass, he was by See also:

• SPECIAL

special enactment dispensed from its provisions . But in 54 B.C . Julia, the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died, and in 53 B.C . Crassus was killed at Carrhae . Pompey now drifted apart from Caesar and became the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the senate . In 52 B.C. he passed a fresh law de jure magistratuum which cut away the ground beneath Caesar's feet by making it possible to provide a successor to the Gallic provinces before the close of 49 B.C., which meant that Caesar would become for some months a private person, and thus liable to be called to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for his unconstitutional acts . Caesar had no resource left but uncompromising obstruction, which he sustained by enormous bribes . His representative in 50 B.C., the tribune C . Scribonius See also:

• CURIO, OAIUS SCRIBONIUS

Curio, served him well, and induced the lukewarm See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the senate to refrain from extreme See also:

• MEASURES

measures, insisting that Pompey, as well as Caesar, should resign the imperium . But all attempts at negotiation failed, and in January 49 B.C., See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial law having been proclaimed on the proposal of the consuls, the tribunes Antony and See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius fled to Caesar, who crossed the See also:

• RUBICON

Rubicon (the frontier of Italy) with a single legion, exclaiming " Alea jacta est." Pompey's available force consisted in two legions stationed in See also:

• CAMPANIA

Campania, and eight, commanded by his lieutenants, See also:

• AFRANIUS, LUCIUS

Afranius and Petreius, in Spain; both sides levied troops in The Civil Italy .

Caesar was soon joined by two legions from war . Gaul and marched rapidly down the Adriatic coast, overtaking Pompey at See also:

• BRUNDISIUM (Gr. Bpevrkwv, mod. Brindisi)

Brundisium (See also:

• BRINDISI (anc. Brundisium, q.v.)

Brindisi), but failing to prevent him from embarking with his troops for the East, where the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of his name was greatest . Hereupon Caesar (it is said) exclaimed " I am going to Spain to fight an army without a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)