See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)  , the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and the rriost populous See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, on the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile, 1a m . S. of the See also:

• APEX

apex of the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta, in 300 3' N. and 31° 21' E . It is z3o m . S.E. of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, and 148 E. of See also:

• SUEZ

Suez by See also:

• RAIL

rail, though only 84 m. from the last-named See also:

• PORT

port by the overland route across the See also:

• DESERT

desert, in use before the opening of the Suez See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

Canal . See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo occupies a length of 5 M . On the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• BANK

bank of the Nile, stretching See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north from the old See also:

• ROMAN

Roman fortress of See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon, and covers an See also:

• AREA

area of about 8 sq. m . It is built partly on the alluvial See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of the Nile valley and partly on the rocky slopes of the Mokattam hills, which rise 550 ft. above the See also:

• TOWN

town . The citadel, which is built on a See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur of the Mokattam hills, occupies the S.E. See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the city . The prospect from the ramparts of this fortress is one of striking picturesqueness and beauty . Below lies the city with its See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient walls and lofty towers, its gardens and squares, its palaces and its mosques, with their delicately-carved domes and minarets covered with fantastic See also:

• TRACERY

tracery, the port of Bulak, the gardens and See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of Shubra, the broad See also:

• RIVER

river studded with islands, the valley of the Nile dotted with See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of trees, with the pyramids on the north See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon, and on the east the barren cliffs, backed by a See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . Since the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the city has more than doubled in See also:

• SIZE

size and See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . The newer quarters, situated near the river, are laid out in the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French cities, but the eastern parts of the town retain, almost unimpaired, their See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental aspect, and in scores of narrow, tortuous streets, and busy bazaars it is easy to forget that there has been any See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from the Cairo of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval times .

Here the See also:

• LINE

line of fortifications still marks the eastern limits of the city, though on the north large districts have grown up beyond the walls . Neither on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south nor towards the river are there any fortifications See also:

• LEFT

left . See also:

• PRINCIPAL

Principal Quarters and Modern Buildings.—From the citadel a straight road, the Sharia . Mehemet See also:

• ALI

Ali, runs N. to the Ezbekia (Ezbekiyeh) Gardens, which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover over 20 acres, and See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the central point of the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony . North and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the Ezbekia runs the See also:

• ISMAILIA

Ismailia canal, and on the W. See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the canal, about See also:

• HALF

half a mile N. of the Gardens, is the Central railway station, approached by a broad road, the Sharia See also:

• CLOT, ANTOINE

Clot See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

Bey . The Arab city and the quarters of the See also:

• COPTS

Copts and See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie E. of the two streets named . West of the Ismailia canal lies the Bulak See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, the port or See also:

• RIVERSIDE

riverside See also:

• DISTRICT

district . At Bulak are the See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal, foundry and railway See also:

• WORKS

works, a See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper manufactory and the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press, founded by Mehemet Ali . A little distance S.E. of the Ezbekia is the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

Place Atabeh, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief point of intersection of the electric tramways which serve the newer parts of the town . From the Place Atabeh a narrow See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street, the Muski, leads E. into the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the Arab city . Another street leads S.W. to the Nile, at the point where the Kasr en Nil or See also:

• GREAT

Great Nile See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge spans the river, leading to Gezira Bulak, an See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island whereon is a palace, now turned into a hotel, See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

polo, See also:

• CRICKET
• CRICKET (Gryllidae)

cricket and See also:

• TENNIS (sometimes called royal tennis, and, in America, court tennis)

tennis grounds, and a racecourse . The districts between the bridge, the Ezbekia and the Ismailia canal, are known as the Ismailia and Tewfikia quarters, after the khedives in whose reigns they were laid out .

The district immediately south of the bridge is called the Kasr el-Dubara quarter . Abdin Square, which occupies a central position, is connected with Ezbekia Gardens by a straight road . The narrow canal, El Khalig, which branched from the Nile at Old Cairo and traversed the city from S.W. to N.E., was filled up in 1897, and an electric See also:

• TRAMWAY

tramway runs along the road thus made . With the filling up of the channel the ancient festival of the cutting of the canal came to an end . The government offices and other modern public buildings are nearly all in the western half of the city . On the south side of the Ezbekia are the See also:

• POST

post See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, the courts of the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Tribunals,and the See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . On theeastsidearethebourseand the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

Credit Lyonnais, on the north the buildings of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• MISSION

mission . On or near the west side of the gardens are most of the large and luxurious hotels which the city contains for the See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of Europeans . Facing the river immediately north of the Great Nile bridge are the large See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks, called Kasr-en-Nil, and the new museum of See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian antiquities (opened in 1902) . South of the bridge are the Ismailia palace (a khedivial See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence), the See also:

• BRITISH

British consulate See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, the palace of the See also:

• KHEDIVE

khedive's See also:

• MOTHER

mother, the medical school and the government See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital . Farther removed from the river are the offices of the ministries of public works and of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war—a large See also:

• BUILDING

building surrounded by gardens—and of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and See also:

• FINANCE

finance . On the east side of Abdin Square is Abdin palace, an unpretentious building used for See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official receptions .

Adjoining the palace are barracks . N.E. of Abdin Square, in the Sharia Mehemet Ali, is the Arab museum and khedivial library . Near this building are the new courts of the native tribunals . Private houses in these western districts consist chiefly of residential flats, though in the Kasr el-Dubara quarter are many detached residences . The Oriental City.—The eastern half of Cairo is divided into many quarters . These quarters were formerly closed at See also:

• NIGHT

night by massive See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates . A few of these gates remain . In addition to the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan quarters, usually called after the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of the inhabitants or some notable building, there are the Copt or See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian quarter, the Jews' quarter and the old " See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank " quarter . The last is the Muski district where, since the days of See also:

• SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith ") (1138—1193)

Saladin, " Frank " merchants have been permitted to live and trade . Some of the principal See also:

• EUROPEAN

European shops are still to be found in this street . The Copt and Jewish quarters lie north of the Muski . The Coptic See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral, dedicated to St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark, is a modern building in the See also:

• BASILICA

basilica See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style .

The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest Coptic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church in Cairo is, probably, the Keniset-el-See also:

• ADRA (anc. Abdera)

Adra, or Church of the Virgin, which is stated to preserve the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original type of Coptic basilica . The Coptic churches in the city are not, however, of so much See also:

• INTEREST

interest as those in Old Cairo (see below) . In the Copt quarter are also Armenian, Syrian, Maronite, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic churches . In the Copt and Jewish quarters the streets, as in the Arab quarters, are winding and narrow . In them the projecting upper stories of the houses nearly meet . Sebils or public fountains are numerous . These fountains are generally two-storeyed, the See also:

• LOWER

lower chamber enclosing a well, the upper See also:

• ROOM

room being often used for scholastic purposes . Many of the fountains are See also:

• FINE

fine specimens of Arab See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture . While the houses of the poorer classes are mean and too often dirty, in marked contrast are the houses of the wealthier citizens, built generally in a style of elaborate See also:

• ARABESQUE

arabesque, the windows shaded with projecting cornices of graceful woodwork (mushrebiya) and ornamented with stained See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass . A winding passage leads through the ornamental See also:

• DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. Iran, Lat. porte)

doorway into the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, in the centre of which is a See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain shaded with See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm-trees . The principal apartment is generally paved with See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble; in the centre a decorated See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

lantern is suspended over a fountain, while See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the sides are richly inlaid cabinets and windows of stained glass; and in a See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess is the See also:

• DIVAN (Arabic divan)

divan, a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, narrow, cushioned seat . The See also:

• BASEMENT

basement See also:

• STOREY (equivalents are Fr. etage, Ital. piano, Ger. Stock)

storey is generally built of the soft calcareous See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone of the neighbouring hills, and the upper storey, which contains the See also:

• HAREM

harem, of painted See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick .

The shops of the merchants are small and open to the street . The greater See also:

• PART

part of the trade isdone, however, in the bazaars or markets, which are held in large khans or storehouses, of two storeys and of considerable size . See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

Access to them is gained from the narrow lanes which usually surround them . The khans often possess fine gateways . The principal See also:

• BAZAAR (Pers. bazar, market)

bazaar, the See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan-el-Khalil, marks the site of the tombs of the Fatimite caliphs . The Citadel and the Mosques.—Besides the citadel, the principal edifices in the Arab quarters are the mosques and the ancient gates . The citadel or El-Kala was built by Saladin about 1166, but it has since undergone frequent alteration, and now contains a palace erected by Mehemet Ali, and a See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque of Oriental See also:

• ALABASTER
• ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567-1640)

alabaster (based on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of the mosques at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople) founded by the same See also:

• PASHA

pasha on the site of " See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph's See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall," so named after the prenomen of Saladin . The See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome and the two slender minarets of this mosque form one of the most picturesque features of Cairo, and are visible from a great distance . In the centre is a well called Joseph's Well, sunk in the solid See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock to the level of the Nile . There are four other mosques within the citadel walls, the chief being that of See also:

• IBN

Ibn Kalaun, built in A.D . 1317 by See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

Sultan Nasir ibn Kalaun . The dome has fallen in .

After having been used as a See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison, and, later, as a military storehouse, it has been cleared and its fine colonnades are again visible . The upper parts of the minarets are covered with See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green tiles . They are furnished with bulbous cupolas . The most magnificent of the city mosques is that of Sultan See also:

• HASAN

Hasan, See also:

• STANDING

standing in the immediate vicinity of the citadel . It See also:

• DATES

dates from A.D . 1357, and is celebrated for the grandeur of its See also:

• PORCH (through the Fr. porehe, from Lat. porticus; the Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapOi ; Ger. Vorhalle)

porch and See also:

• CORNICE (Fr. corniche, Ital. cornice)

cornice and the delicate stalactite vaulting which adorns them . The restoration of parts of the mosque which had fallen into decay was begun in 1904 . Besides it there is the mosque of Tulun (c . A.D . 879) exhibiting very ancient specimens of the pointed See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch; the mosque of Sultan El Hakim (A.D . 1003), the mosque el Azhar (the splendid), which dates from about A.D . 970, and is the seat of a Mahommedan university; and the mosque of Sultan Kalaun, which is attached to the hospital or madhouse (muristan) begun by Kalaun in A.D .

1285 . The whole forms a large See also:

• GROUP

group of buildings, now partially in ruins, in a style resembling the contemporaneous medieval See also:

• WORK

work in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, with pointed See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches in several orders . Besides the mosque proper there is a second mosque containing the fine See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

mausoleum of Kalaun . Adjacent to the muristan on the north is the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb mosque of al Nasir, completed 1303, with a fine portal . East of the Khan-el-Khalil is the mosque of El Hasanen, which is invested with See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar sanctity as containing See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of Hosain and Hasan, grandsons of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

Prophet . This mosque was rebuilt in the 19th century and is of no architectural importance . In all Cairo contains over 26o mosques, and nearly as many zawias or chapels . Of the gates the finest are the Bab-en-Nasr, in the north See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of the city, and the Bab-ez-Zuwela, the only surviving part of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern fortifications . Tombs of the Caliphs and Mamelukes.—Beyond the eastern wall of the city are the splendid mausolea erroneously known to Europeans as the tombs of the caliphs; they really are tombs of the Circassian or Burji Mamelukes, a See also:

• RACE

race extinguished by Mehemet Ali . Their lofty gilt domes and fanciful network or arabesque tracery are partly in ruins, and the mosques attached to them are also partly ruined . The chief tomb mosques are those of Sultan Barkuk, with two domes and two minarets, completed A.D . 1410, and that of Kait Bey (c .

1470), with a slender See also:

• MINARET (from the Arabic mandrat ; manar or miner is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which liar, fire, is lit)

minaret 135 ft. high . This mosque was carefully re-stored in 1898 . South of the citadel is another group of tomb-mosques known as the tombs of the Mamelukes . They are architecturally of less interest than those of the " caliphs." Southwest of the See also:

• MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic mantluk, a slave)

Mameluke tombs is the much-venerated tomb-mosque of the See also:

• IMAM

Imam esh-Shafih or See also:

• SHARI

Shari, founder of one of the four orthodox sects of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam . Near the imam's mosque is a See also:

• FAMILY

family See also:

• BURIAL

burial-place built by Mehemet Ali . Old Cairo: the Fortress of Babylon and the Nilometer.—About a mile south of the city is Masr-el-Atika, called by Europeans Old Cairo . Between Old Cairo and the newer city are large mounds of debris marking the site of Fostat (see below, See also:

• HISTORY

History) . The road to Old Cairo by the river leads past the monastery of the " Howling " Dervishes, and the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct which formerly supplied the citadel with See also:

• WATER

water . Farther to the east is the mosque of Amr, a much-altered building dating from A.D . 643 and containing the tomb of the Arab conqueror of Egypt . Most important of the quarters of Masr-el-Atika is that of Kasr-esh-Shama (See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

Castle of the See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

Candle), built within the See also:

• OUTER

outer walls of the Roman fortress of Babylon . Several towers of this fortress remain, and in the south wall is a massive gateway, uncovered in 1901 .

In the quarter are five Coptic churches, a Greek See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent and two churches, and a See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

synagogue . The principal Coptic church is that of See also:

• ABU

Abu Serga (St See also:

• SERGIUS, ST

Sergius) . The See also:

• CRYPT (Lat. crypta, from the Gr. Kp&arrew, to hide)

crypt dates from about the 6th century and is dedicated to Sitt Miriam (the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary), from a tradition that in the See also:

• FLIGHT

flight into Egypt the Virgin and See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

Child rested at this spot . The upper church is basilican in form, the See also:

• NAVE

nave being, as customary in Coptic churches, divided into three sections by wooden screens, which are adorned by carvings in See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory and See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood . The wall above the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar is faced with beautiful mosaics of See also:

• MARBLES

marbles, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue glass and mother-of-See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl . Of the other churches in Kasresh-Shama the most noteworthy is that of El Adra (the Virgin), also called El Moallaka, or The Suspended, being built in one of the towers of the Roman gateway . It contains fine wooden and ivory screens . The See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel)

pulpit is supported on fifteen columns, which See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on a slab of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white marble . The See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of the Copts was formerly consecrated in this church . The other buildings in Old Cairo, or among the mounds of rubbish which adjoin it, include several fort-like See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens or convents . One, south of the Kasresh-Shama, is called Der Bablun, thus preserving the name of the ancient fortress . In the Der Abu Sephin, to the north of Babylon, is a Coptic church of the loth century, possessing magnificent carved screens, a pulpit with fine mosaics and a semi-circle of marble steps .

Opposite Old Cairo lies the island of Roda, where, according to Arab tradition, See also:

• PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh's daughter found See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses in the bulrushes . Two See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, opened in 1908, connect Old Cairo with Roda, and a third bridge joins Roda to Giza on the west bank of the river . Roda Island contains a mosque built by Kait Bey, and at its southern extremity is the Nilometer, by which the Cairenes have for over a thousand years measured the rise of the river . It is a square well with an octagonal See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar marked in cubits in the centre . See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern and Western Suburbs.—Two See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles N.E. of Cairo and on the edge of the desert is the suburb of Abbasia (named after the See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy Abbas), connected with the city by a continuous line of houses . Abbasia is now largely a military colony, the See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry barracks being the old palace of Abbas Pasha . In these barracks Arabi Pasha surrendered to the British on the 14th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1882, the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day after the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Tel el-Kebir . Mataria, a See also:

• VILLAGE

village 3 M. farther to the N.E., is the site of the defeat of the Mamelukes by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks in 1517, and of the defeat of the Turks by the French under General Kleber in 1800 . At Mataria was a sycamore-See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, the successor of a tree which decayed in 1665, venerated as being that beneath which the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Family, rested on their flight into Egypt . This tree was blown down in See also:

• JULY

July 1906 and its place taken by a cutting made from the tree some years previously . Less than a mile N.E. of Mataria are the scanty remains of the ancient city of On or See also:

• HELIOPOLIS

Heliopolis, The chief See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument is an See also:

• OBELISK (Gr. b/3EXivrcos, diminutive of OEMs, a spit)

obelisk, about 66 ft. high, erected by Usertesen I. of the Nllth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty . A residential suburb, named Heliopolis, containing many fine buildings, was laid out between Mataria and Abbasia during 1905-10 .

On the west bank of the Nile, opposite the southern end of Roda Island, is the small town of Giza or Gizeh, a fortified place of considerable importance in the times of the Mamelukes . In the viceregal palace here the museum of Egyptian antiquities was housed for several years (1889-1902) . The grounds of this palace have been converted into zoological gardens . A broad, tree-bordered, macadamized road, along which run electric trams, leads S.S.W. across the plain to the Pyramids of Giza, 5 m. distant, built on the edge of the desert . Helwan.—Fourteen miles S. of Cairo and connected with it by railway is the town of Helwan, built in the desert 3 M . E. of the Nile, and much frequented by invalids on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur See also:

• BATHS

baths, which are owned by the Egyptian government . A khedivial astronomical See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory was built here in 1903-1904, to take the place of that at Abbasia, that site being no longer suitable in consequence of the northward See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the city . The ruins of See also:

• MEMPHIS

Memphis are on the E. bank of the Nile opposite Helwan . Inhabitants.—The inhabitants are of many diverse races, the various nationalities being frequently distinguishable by See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress as well as in See also:

• PHYSIOGNOMY

physiognomy and See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour . In the oriental quarters of the city the curious shops, the markets of different trades (the shops of each trade being generally congregated in one street or district), the easy See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant sitting before his See also:

• SHOP

shop, the musical and See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint street-cries of the picturesque vendors of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, See also:

• SHERBET (the Turkish form of the Arabic sharbat, drink, shariba, he drank, cf. " shrub," an English derivative)

sherbet, water, &c., with the ever-changing and many-coloured throng of passengers, all render the streets a delightful study for the See also:

• LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

lover of Arab See also:

• LIFE

life, nowhere else to be seen in such perfection, or with so fine a background of magnificent buildings . The Cairenes, or native citizens, differ from the fellahin in having a much larger mixture of Arab See also:

• BLOOD

blood, and are at once keener witted and more conservative than the peasantry . The Arabic spoken by the middle and higher classes is generally inferior in grammatical correctness and See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation to that of the See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, but is purer than that of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria or the See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect spoken by the Western See also:

• ARABS

Arabs .

Besides the Cairenes proper, who are largely engaged in trade or handicrafts, the inhabitants include Arabs, See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of Nubians and Negroes—mostly labourers or domestics in nominal See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery—and many Levantines, there being considerable colonies of Syrians and Armenians . The higher classes of native society are largely of See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish or semi-Turkish descent . Of other races the most numerous are Greeks, Italians, British, French and Jews . Bedouins from the desert frequent the bazaars . At the beginning of the 19th century the population was estimated at about 200,000, made up of 120,000 Moslems, 6o,000 Copts, 4000 Jews and 16,000 Greeks, Armenians and " See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks." In 1882 the population had risen to 374,000, in 1897 to 570,062, and in 1907, including Helwan and Mataria, the See also:

• TOTAL

total population was 654,476, of whom 46,507 were Europeans . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate and See also:

• HEALTH

Health.—In consequence of its insanitary See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, Cairo used to have a heavy See also:

• DEATH

death-See also:

• RATE

rate . Since the British occupation in 1882 much has been done to better this See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of things, notably by a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good water-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply and a proper See also:

• SYSTEM

system of drainage . The death-rate of the native population is about 35 per 'coo . The climate of the city is generally healthy, with a mean temperature of about 68° F . Though See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain seldom falls, exhalations from the river, especially when the See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood has begun to subside, render the districts near the Nile See also:

• DAMP

damp during September, See also:

• OCTOBER

October and See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, and in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• MORNING

morning fogs are not uncommon . The prevalent north See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and the rise of the water tend to keep the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air cool in summer . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—The commerce of Cairo, of considerable extent and variety, consists mainly in the transit of goods .

See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

Gum, ivory, hides, and See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich feathers from the See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton and See also:

• SUGAR

sugar from Upper Egypt, See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo and shawls from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco from See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey, and European manufactures, such as machinery, hardware, See also:

• CUTLERY (Fr. coutellerie, from the Lat. cultellus, a little knife)

cutlery, glass, and cotton and woollen goods, are the more important articles . The See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in slaves ceased in 1877 . In Bulak are several factories founded by Mehemet Ali for See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning, See also:

• WEAVING

weaving and printing cotton, and a paper-See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill established by the khedive See also:

• ISMAIL (1830-1895)

Ismail in 187o . .Various kinds of paper are manufactured, and especially a fine quality for use in the government offices . In the Island of Roda there is a sugar-refinery of considerable extent, founded in 1859, and principally managed by Englishmen . See also:

• SILK

Silk goods, See also:

• SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, Petra, a rock)

saltpetre, See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder, See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather, &c., are also manufactured . An See also:

• OCTROI (0. Fr. octroyer, to grant, authorize; Lat. auctor)

octroi See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of 9 % ad valorem formerly levied on all See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food stuffs entering the city was abolished in 1903 . It used to produce about 150,000 per annum . Mahommedan Architecture.—Architecturally considered Cairo is still the most remarkable and characteristic of Arab cities . The edifices raised by the Moorish See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and the Moslem rulers of India may have been more splendid in their materials, and more elaborate in their details; the houses of the great men of See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus may be more costly than were those of the Mameluke beys; but for purity of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and elegance of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design both are far excelled by many of the mosques and houses of Cairo . These mosques have suffered much in the beauty of their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance from the effects of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and neglect; but their colour has been often thus softened, and their outlines rendered the more picturesque . What is most to be admired in their style of architecture is its extraordinary freedom from See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint, shown in the wonderful variety of its forms, and the skill in design which has made the most intricate details to harmonize with See also:

• GRAND

grand outlines .

Here the student may best learn the history of Arab See also:

• ART

art . Like its contemporary See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic, it has three great periods, those of growth, maturity and decline . Of the first, the mosque of Ahmed Ibn-Tulun in the southern part of Cairo, and the three great gates of the city, the Bab-en-Naar, Bab-el-Futuh and Bab-Zuwela, are splendid examples . The design of these entrance gateways is extremely See also:

• SIMPLE

simple and massive, depending for their effect on the fine See also:

• ASHLAR

ashlar See also:

• MASONRY

masonry in which they are built, the decoration being more or less confined to ornamental disks . The mosque of Tulun was built entirely in brick, and is the earliest instance of the employment of the pointed arch in Egypt . The See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of the arch turns in slightly below the springing, giving a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe shape . Built in brick, it was found necessary to give a more monumental appearance to the walls by a casing of See also:

• STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece, patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock)

stucco, which remains in See also:

• FAIR

fair preservation to the See also:

• PRESENT

present day . This led to the enrichment of the archivolts and imposts with that peculiar type of conventional foliage which characterizes Mahommedan work, and which in this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case was carried out by Coptic craftsmen . The attached angle-shafts of piers are found here for the first time, and their capitals are enriched, as also the See also:

• FRIEZE

frieze surmounting the walls, with other conventional patterns . The second. See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period passes from the highest point to which this art attained to a luxuriance promising decay . The mosque of sultan Hasan, below the citadel, those of Muayyad and Kalaun, with the Barkukiya and the mosque of Barkuk in the See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery of Kait Bey, are instances of the second and more matured style of the period . The simple plain ashlar masonry still predominates, but the wall See also:

• SURFACE

surface is broken up with sunk panels, sometimes with geometrical patterns in them .

The principal characteristics of this second period are the magnificent portals, rising sometimes, as in the mosque of sultan Hasan, to 8o or 90 ft., with elaborate stalactite vaulting at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, and the deep stalactite cornices which See also:

• CROWN

crown the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of the building . The decoration of the interior consists of the casing of the walls with marble with enriched See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders, and (about 20 ft. above the ground) friezes 3 to 5 ft. in height ig whichthe precepts of the See also:

• KORAN

Koran are carved in See also:

• RELIEF

relief, with a background of conventional foliage . Of the last style of this period the Ghuriya and the mosque of Kait Bey in his cemetery are beautiful specimens . They show an See also:

• ELONGATION

elongation of forms and an excess of decoration in which the florid qualities predominate . Of the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of decline the finest monument is the mosque of Mahommad Bey Abu-Dahab . The forms are now poor, though not lacking in grandeur, and the details are not as well adjusted as before, with a want of mastery of the most suitable decoration . The usual See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of a congregational mosque is a large, square, open court, surrounded by arcades of which the chief, often several bays deep, and known as the Manksura, or See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer-chamber, faces See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca . (eastward), and has inside its outer wall a decorated See also:

• NICHE (through Fr. niche from Ital. nicchia, nicchio, shell; possibly from Lat. mitulus, a sea-mussel; cf. " napkin " from mappa)

niche to mark the direction of prayer . In the centre of the court is a fountain for ablutions, often surmounted by a dome, and in the prayer-chamber a pulpit and a See also:

• DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table," cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source)

desk for readers . When a mosque is also the founder's tomb, it has a richly ornamented sepulchral chamber always covered by a dome (see further MOSQUE, which contains plans of the mosques of Amr and sultan Hasan, and of the tomb mosque of Kait Bey) . After centuries of neglect efforts are now made to preserve the monuments of Arabic art, a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission with that See also:

• OBJECT

object having been appointed in 1881 . To this commission the government makes an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant of £4000 .

The careful and syste-matic work- accomplished by this commission has preserved much of interest and beauty which would otherwise have gone utterly to ruin . Arrangements were made in 1902 for the systematic repair and preservation of Coptic monuments . Museumsand Library.—The museum of Egyptian antiquities was founded at Bulak in 1863, being then housed in a mosque, by the French savant Auguste See also:

• MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANCOIS (1821-1881)

Mariette . In 1889 the collection was transferred to the Giza (Ghezireh) palace, and in 1902 was removed to its present quarters, erected at a cost of over £250,000 . A statue of Mariette was unveiled in 1904 . The museum is entirely devoted to antiquities of Pharaonic times, and, except in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical papyri, in which it is excelled by the British Museum, is the most valuable collection of such antiquities in existence . The Arab museum and khedivial library are housed in a building erected for the purpose, at a cost of £66,000, and opened in 1903 . In the museum are preserved treasures of Saracenic art, including many See also:

• OBJECTS

objects removed from the mosques for their better See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security . The khedivial library contains some 64,000 volumes, over two-thirds being books and See also:

• MSS

MSS. in Arabic, See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian, Turkish, Amharic and See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac . The Arabic See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section includes a unique collection of 2677 korans . The Persian section is See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in illuminated MSS . The numismatic collection, as regards the period of the caliphs and later dynasties, is one of the richest in the See also:

• WORLD

world .

History.—Before the Arab See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Egypt the site of Cairo appears to have been open See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . Memphis was some 12 m. higher up on the opposite side of the Nile, and Heliopolis was 5 or 6 m. distant on the N.E . The most ancient known See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in the immediate neighbourhood of the present city was the town called Babylon . From its situation it may have been a north suburb of Memphis, which was still inhabited in the 7th century A.D . Babylon is said by See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo to have been founded by emigrants from the ancient city of the same name in 525 B.C., i.e. at the time of the Persian conquest of Egypt . Here the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans built a fortress and made it the headquarters of one of the three legions which garrisoned the country . The church of Babylon mentioned in x See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter v . 13 has been thought by some writers to refer to this town—an improbable supposition . Amr, the conqueror of Egypt for the See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar, after taking the town besieged the fortress for the greater part of a See also:

• YEAR

year, the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison surrendering in See also:

• APRIL

April A.D . 641 . The town of Babylon disappeared, but the strong walls of the fortress in part remain, and the name survived, " Babylon of Egypt," or " Babylon " simply, being frequently used in medieval writings as synonymous with Cairo or as denoting the successive Mahommedan dynasties of Egypt . Cairo itself is the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth Moslem capital of Egypt; the site of one of those that had preceded it is, for the most part, included within its walls, while the other two were a little to the south .

Amr founded El-Fostat, the oldest of these, See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the fortress which he had besieged . Fostat signifies " the See also:

• TENT

tent," the town being built where Amr had pitched his tent . The new town speedily became a place of importance, and was the residence of the albs, or lieutenants, appointed by the orthodox and Omayyad caliphs . It received the name of Masr, properly Misr, which was also applied by the Arabs to Memphis and to Cairo, and is to-day, with the Roman town which preceded it, represented by Masr el-Atika, or " Old Cairo." Shortly after the overthrow of the Omayyad dynasty, and the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the See also:

• ABBASIDS

Abbasids, the city of El-'Askar was founded (A.D . 750) by See also:

• SULEIMAN

Suleiman, the general who subjugated the country, and became the capital and the residence of the successive lieutenants of the Abbasid caliphs . El-'Askar was a small town N.E. of and adjacent to El-Fostat, of which it was a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of-suburb . Its site is now entirely desolate . The third capital, El-Katai, was founded about A.D . 873 by Ahmed Ibn Tulun, as his capital . It continued the royal residence of his successors; but was sacked not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the fall of the dynasty and rapidly decayed . A part of the present Cairo occupies its site and contains its great mosque, that of Ahmed Ibn Tulun . Jauhar (Gohar) el-Kaid, the conqueror of Egypt for the Fatimite caliph El-Moizz, founded a new capital, A.D .

968, which was named El-Kahira, that is, " the Victorious," a name corrupted into Cairo . The new city, like that founded by Amr, was originally the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp of the conqueror . This town occupied about a fourth part, the north-eastern, of the present See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

metropolis . By degrees it became greater than El-Fos-tat, and took from it the name of Misr, or Masr, which is applied to it by the modern Egyptians . With its rise Fostat, which had been little affected by the establishment of Askar and Katai, declined . It continually increased so as to include the site of El-Katai to the south . In A.D . 1176 Cairo was unsuccessfully attacked by the Crusaders; shortly afterwards Saladin built the citadel on the lowest point of the mountains to the east, which immediately overlooked El-Katai, and he partly walled round the towns and large gardens within the space now called Cairo . Under the prosperous See also:

• RULE

rule of the Mameluke sultans this great See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract was filled with habitations; a large suburb to the north, the Hoseynia, was added; and the town of Bulak was founded . After the Turkish conquest (A.D . 1517) the metropolis decayed, but its limits were the same . In 1798 the city was captured by the French, who were driven out in 18or by the Turkish and See also:

• ENGLISH

English forces; the city being handed over to the Turks .

Mehemet All, originally the Turkish viceroy, by his See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of the Mamelukes in 1811, in a narrow street leading to the citadel, made himself See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of the country, and Cairo again became the capital of a virtually See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom . Under Mehemet and his successors all the western part of the city has grown up . The khedive Ismail, in making the straight road from the citadel to the Ezbekia gardens, destroyed many of the finest houses of the old town . In 1882 Cairo was occupied by the British, and British troops continue to garrison the citadel . a historical and architectural survey of the Moslem city; E . See also:

• REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (182o-1863)
• REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (1723-1792)
• REYNOLDS, WALTER (d. 1327)

Reynolds-See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball, Cairo: the City of the Caliphs (See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, U.S.A., 1897) ; Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art arabe d'apres See also:

• LES

les monuments du Caire (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1847) ; P . Ravaisse, L'Histoire et la topographie du Caire d'apres Makrizi (Paris, 1887) ; E . W . See also:

• LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801–1876)
• LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814–1866)

Lane, Cairo Fifty Years Ago (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1896), presents a picture of the city as it was before the era of European ` improvements," and gives extracts from the Khitat of See also:

• MAQRIZI, or MAKRIZI [Tagi ud-Din Ahmad ibn 'Al] (1364–1442)

Maqrizi, written in 1417, the chief original authority on the antiquities of Cairo; See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray's and See also:

• BAEDEKER, KARL (1801–1859)

Baedeker's Guides, and A. and C . See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black's Cairo of To-day (1905), contain much useful and accurate See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information about Cairo . For the fortress of Babylon and its churches consult A . J .

See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches in Egypt (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1884) .