CALIPHATE  .1 The See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan rulers in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East who See also:

• BORE

bore the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main divisions:—(a) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet; (b) The Omayyad caliphs; (c) The Abbasid caliphs . To these three See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is See also:

• CON

con-fined; for the Western caliphs, see See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

SPAIN: History (and See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor articles such as See also:

• ALMOHADES (properly Muwahhadis, i.e. " Unitarians," the name being corrupted through the Spanish)

ALMOHADES, See also:

• ALMORAVIDES (properly Murabtis, the name being corrupted through the Spanish)

ALMORAVIDES); for the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian caliphs see See also:

• EGYPT

EGYPT: History (§ Mahommedan) and See also:

• FATIMITES
• FATIMITES, or FATIMIDES

FATIMITES . The history of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia proper will be found under ARABIA: History . A.—THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS After the See also:

• DEATH

death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his " representative." The choice See also:

• LAY

lay with the community of See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina; so much was understood; but whom were they to choose ? The natives of Medina believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, and wished to promote one of themselves . But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into the See also:

• TOWN

town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties . The Emigrants' leading spirit was See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar; he did not, however, cause See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage to be paid to himself, but to See also:

• ABU

Abu Bekr, the friend and See also:

• FATHER

father-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

Prophet . The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward See also:

• SCHISM

schism which threatened . See also:

• ISLAM

Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the community of Medina; only See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca and Taff (Tayef) remained true . The See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement ? None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the political society and the religious are identical . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar compliment to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion in the various districts did not pose as princes and See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, but as prophets; in this appeared to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret of Islam's success .

1 . Reign of Abu Bekr.—Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the perilous situation . In the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, he allowed the expedition against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, limiting himself for the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Medina . On the return of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army he proceeded to attack I Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places appear in their most See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar forms, generally without accents or other diacritical signs . For the See also:

• SAKE

sake of homogeneity the articles on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such cases, the exact forms, according to the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of transliteration adopted, are there given in addition . 2 See See also:

• NOLDEKE
• NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836— )

Noldeke, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien Araber (1864), pp . 89 seq . the rebels . The See also:

• HOLY

holy spirit of Islam kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing zeal for the faith; the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs as a whole had no other See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union and no better source of See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration than individual See also:

• INTEREST

interest . As was to be expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt . Those who submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered in rebellion were punished with death . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority accordingly converted, the obstinate were extirpated .

In Yamama (Yemama) only was there a severe struggle; the Banu Iianifa under their prophet Mosailima fought bravely, but here also . Islam triumphed . The See also:

• INTERNAL

internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange to say, brought about by its See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion abroad . The holy See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war against the border countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for making the new See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at the same time afforded for gaining See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," O. Eng. bot, ad-vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin)

booty . The movement was organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite other than religious motives . Nor was this by any means the first occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness . This had last happened in consequence of the events which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom . At that time the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and See also:

• HIRA

Hira had arisen in the western and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest its nearest and natural See also:

• GOAL

goal . But inasmuch as Hira was subject to the Persians, and Eastern See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine to the Greeks, the See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of the Arabians involved the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the war beyond the limits of Arabia to a struggle with the two See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers (see further ARABIA: History) . After the subjugation of See also:

• MIDDLE

middle and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. al-Walid proceeded by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the caliph, to the conquest of the districts on the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates . Thence he was summoned to See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, where hostilities had also broken out . See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell See also:

• LATE

late in the summer of 635, and on the loth of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 636 was fought the great decisive See also:

• BATTLE

battle on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• HERACLIUS ('HpaeXaos) (c. 575-642)

Heraclius (q.v.) finally to abandon Syria .l See also:

• LEFT

Left to themselves, the Christians hence-forward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified cities; for the most See also:

• PART

part they witnessed the disappearance of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power without regret .

Meanwhile the war was also carried on against the Persians in See also:

• IRAK

Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637) . In consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were forced to abandon the western portion of their See also:

• EMPIRE

empire and limit themselves to See also:

• IRAN

Iran proper . The Moslems made themselves masters of See also:

• CTESIPHON

Ctesiphon (Madain), the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the Sassanids on the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris, and conquered in the immediately following years the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of the two See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers . In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face in See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia . In a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time they had taken from the See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans all the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal old Semitic lands—Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and Babylonia . To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little difficulty by `Amr See also:

• IBN

ibn-el-See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

Ass (q.v.) in 64o . (See EGYPT: History, § Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously occurred . The kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand at Damascus, on the other hand at See also:

• KUFA

Kufa and See also:

• BASRA (written also BUSRA, BASSORA and BASSORA)

Basra, the two newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia . The See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the See also:

• HEJAZ (H1JAz)

Hejaz (Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of affairs . The ease with which the native populations of the conquered districts, exclusively or prevailingly See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian, adapted themselves to the new See also:

• RULE

rule is very striking . Their See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality had 1 De See also:

• GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836—1909)

Goeje, Memoires d'hist. et de geog. orient . No .

2 (2nd ed., See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1864) ; NOldeke, D.M.Z., 1875, p . 76 sqq.; See also:

• BALADHURI (ABU-L-'ABBAS AHMAD IBN YAHYA IBN JABIR AL-BALADHURi)

Baladhuri 139.been broken See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long ago, but intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek or See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian . Their religiosls sympathy with the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West was seriously impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any See also:

• RATE

rate See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope for See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with the See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology of the emperor of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . The See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of • the masses from See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation to the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel at all . They changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens . In no See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case were they compelled to do so; indeed the Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the See also:

• POLL

poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS) . It would have been a great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage for the solidity ofl ,the Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt . But the Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest;. they did not See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest until the Moslems had subjugated the whole of the See also:

• SASSANID, or SASSANIAN DYNASTY (Or SASANIAN)

Sassanid empire . The most important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the-battle of Nehawend in 641;2 the most obstinate resistance was offered by See also:

• PERSIS (mod. Fars, q.v.)

Persis proper, and especially by the capital; Istakhr (Persis polls) . In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Moslems, and the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, See also:

• YAZDEGERD (" made by God," Izdegerdes)

Yazdegerd III . (q.v.), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his See also:

• REALM

realm, where he came to a miserable end .3 But it was long before the Iranians learned to accept the situation . Unlike the Christians of• western See also:

• ASIA

Asia, they had a vigorous feeling of See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride, based upon glorious memories and especially upon a See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church having a connexion of the closest See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind with the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state .

Internal disturbances of a religious and political See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and See also:

• EXTERNAL

external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism . They were fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith . Their subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated . Even when in See also:

• PROCESS

process of time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it thoroughly with their own peculiar See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven, and, especially, deprived it of the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical political and national character which it had assumed' after the See also:

• FLIGHT

flight to Medina . To the Arabian state they were always a See also:

• THORN (O. Eng. porn, cf. Du. doorn, Ger. Dorn, &c)
• THORN (Polish Torun)

thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward death-See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow, The fall of the Omayyads was their See also:

• WORK

work, and with the Omayyads fell the Arabian empire . 2 . Reign of Omar.—Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of August 634, and as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of course was succeeded by Omar . To Omar's ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests . He himself did not take the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, but remained in Medina with the exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of his See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality and the Moslem community of feeling . His political insight is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national Arabian character of the See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth of Islam,' and especially to promote law and order in its internal affairs . The saying with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: " by See also:

• ALLAH

Allah, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have, vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies 2 The accounts differ; see Baladhuri 305 . The See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology of the conquests is in many points uncertain .

3 Baladhuri 315 sq.; See also:

• TABARI [Abu Ja'far Mahommed ibn Jarir ut-Tabari] (838-923)

Tabari i . Io68 . 4 He sought to make the whole nation a great See also:

• HOST

host of See also:

• GOD

God; the Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else . They were forbidden to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all See also:

• LAND

land was either made state See also:

• PROPERTY

property or was restored to the old owners subject to a perpetual See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute which provided pay on a splendid See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale for the army . with the See also:

• LAWS

laws." . After the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice he directed his organizing activity, as the circumstances demanded, chiefly towards See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial questions—the incidence of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation in the conquered territories,' and the application of the vast resources which poured into the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury at Medina . It must not be brought against him as a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal reproach, that in dealing with these he acted on the principle thatthe Moslems were. the chartered plunderers of all the rest of the See also:

• WORLD

world . But he had to atone by his death for the See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault of his system . In the See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 644 . 3 . Reign of See also:

• OTHMAN (c. 574-656)

Othman.—Before his death Omar had nominated six of the leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among themselves-Othman, See also:

• ALI

Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa`d b . Abi Waggas, and Abdarrahman b .

Auf . The last-named declined to be a See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate, and decided the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election in favour of Othman . Under this weak See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility . We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence and leadership belonged to them as of right . Thanks to the See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy of Omar; they were successful in appropriating to themselves the See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to the Prophet . They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority of their services to the faith, but they also appealed to their See also:

• BLOOD

blood relationship with the 'Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the 'See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the, Koreish in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . In point of fact they See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt` a closer connexion with these than, for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by faith ? The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy . Othman did all in his power to See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press forward this development of affairs . He belonged to the foremost See also:

• FAMILY

family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed to him a matter of course . Every position of influence and emolument was assigned to them; they them-selves boastingly called the important See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Irak the See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden of Koreish . In truth, the entire empire had become that garden .

Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization of Islam the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the world . Such were beyond all doubt the See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians of Mecca, and after "them those of Taif, See also:

• PEOPLE

people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr. ibn-el-Ass; `Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghira b . Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian with his son Moawiya . Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began to appear . It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the " Defenders " (Ansar), and especially of the Emigrants' who had See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent themselves to the See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced . The opposition was' headed by Ali, Zobair, Taiha, both as leading men among the Emigrants and as' disappointed candidates for the Caliphate . Their motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion but power and preferment, were what they Sought .3 Their party was a mixed one . To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with displeasure the promotion to the first places in 'the commonwealth of the great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined themselves to it only at the last moment . But the majority were merely a See also:

• BAND

band ' Noldeke, Tabari, 246 . To Omar is due also the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the Era of the Flight (Hegira), z Eyen in the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and f{oreish, and distinguished from the men of Medina . a It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against the Omayyads . The movement triumphed with the elevation of the Ab'basids to the See also:

• THRONE

throne .

But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali's lostillties against Zobair and Talha as in that of the See also:

• ABBASIDS

Abbasids against the f ollpwers of Ali.of men without views, whose aim was a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change not of system, but of persons in their own interest . Everywhere in the provinces there was agitation against the caliph and his See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors, except in Syria, where Othman's See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin, Moawiya, son of Abe, Sofian (see below), carried on a See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise and strong administration . The movement was most energetic in Irak and in Egypt . Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of Ali, whose own services as well as his See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close relationship to the Prophet seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate . Even then there were enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of See also:

• MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26)

Messiah . The malcontents sought to gain their end by force . In bands they came from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, though his armies were spreading terror from the See also:

• INDUS

Indus and See also:

• OXUS

Oxus to the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina . He propitiated the mutineers by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume their old course . Thus things went on from See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad to worse . In the following See also:

• YEAR

year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again tried the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep . But the rebels caught him in a flagrant See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of his word,' and now demanded his See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects . As he would not yield, they at last took the See also:

• BUILDING

building by See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm and put him to death, an old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of eighty .

His death in the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest service to his house and - of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy . 4 . Reign of Ali.—Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose among the leaders of the opposition . The See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the mutineers summoned Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Tallia and Zobair to do him homage . But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the See also:

• MOTHER

mother of the faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape to -Ira k, where at Basra they raised the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of rebellion . Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor . The new caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and Zobair were slain, and" Ayesha was taken prisoner . But even so Ali had not secured See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . With the See also:

• MURDER

murder of Othman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantageof a legitimate cry—that of vengeance for the blood of the See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey-haired caliph and a distinguished See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion, the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria was impregnable . The See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, not only See also:

• RECENT

recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, through contact with the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman empire and the Christian church, had become to some extent civilized . Through the Ghassanids these latter had become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere in Arabia . Syria was the proper See also:

• SOIL

soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation .

He exhibited Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited his Syrians to vengeance . Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous . ,The See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants . Islam had its headquarters here; Kufa and Basra were the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and political movement . This movement it was that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal interest in him . Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of Syria for the Omayyads . Moawiya could either act or .refrain from acting as he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose, secure in either case ' Or, at least, so they thought . The history of ,the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter to `Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a See also:

• TRICK

trick played on the caliph, who suspected Ali of having had ^ hand in it . of the obedience of his'subjects . Ali,-on the other hand, was unable to convert See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person . It was necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters, which, however, were inconsistent . They compelled him suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies of the See also:

• KORAN

Koran to their lances to denote that not the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword, but the word of God should decide the contest (see further below, B. r; also Am) .

But in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him as a denial of the faith . When the negotiations failed and war was resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn his armies in the first instance against them . He succeeded in disposing of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success he lost the soul of his following . For they were the true champions of the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that the struggle had in no sense'anything to do with the cause of God . Ali's defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior . Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of See also:

• JANUARY

January 661), thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his See also:

• LIFE

life . B.—THE OMAYYAD See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

DYNASTY See also:

• SUMMARY

Summary of Preceding Movements.—The conquest of Mecca had been of the greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of this important See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city with its famous See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary, but above all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge him as the See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

Envoy of God . Among these there were many men of great ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the Arabic expression has it, " to mellow their See also:

• HEARTS

hearts " by concessions and gifts, that his loyal helpers (Ansar) at Medina became dissatisfied and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it . Mahomet was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina . The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and See also:

• YEMEN (Yaman)

Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the Makhzum and other Koreishite families . Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's example . In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the principal generals belonged to them .

Omar did not deviate from that See also:

• LINE

line of conduct . It was he who appointed Yazld, the son of Abu .Sofian, and after his death, his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Moawiya as governor of Syria, and assigned the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b . As) . It is even surprising to find among the leading men so few•of the house of Hashim, the nearest family of the Prophet . The puzzled Moslem doctors explain this fact on the ground that the Hashimites were regarded as too See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble to hold See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important affairs . There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the Omayyads See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born rulers . As long as Omar lived opposition was silent . But Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of favouring the members of his own family—the caliph belonged himself to the house of Omayya—at the expense of the Hashimites and the Ansar . The See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the governorship and military commands had become not only much more important, but also much more lucrative, while power and See also:

• MONEY

money again procured many adherents . The truly devout Moslems on the other hand were scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman . We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed itself, and how there arose against it an opposition, which led in the first place to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, and furthermore, during the whole See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the Omayyad caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous outbreaks, culminating in the great See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe which placed the Abbasids on the throne . The elements of this opposition were of very various kinds:—(r) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the Ansar and Mohajir, who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and could; not See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed tolaga (freedmen), should be in See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the imamate, which carried with it the management of affairs both See also:

• CIVIL

civil and religious .

This party was in the foreground, chiefly in the first period . (s) The partisans of All, the Shi'a (Shi'ites), who in proportion as their influence with the Arabs declined, contrived to strengthen it by obtaining the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided thereto, especially in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the decisive moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves . (3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sustained at the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining new adherents from among those austere Moslems, who held both Omayyads and Alids as usurpers, and have often been called, not unjustly, the Puritans of Islam . (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, who on their See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion to Islam, had put themselves under the patronage of Arabic families, and were therefore called maula's (clients) . These were not only the most numerous, but also, in virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the most dangerous . The largest and strongest See also:

• GROUP

group of these were the Persians, who, before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the ruling class of that country, so that Persian was the dominant See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . With them all malcontents, in particular the See also:

• SHIITES (from Arab. shi`a, a party, and then a sect)

Shiites, found support; by them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the supremacy of the Arabs was finally overthrown . To these elements of discord we must add: (r) That the Arabs, notwithstanding the bond of Islam that See also:

• UNITED

united them, maintained their old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds and factions; (2) that the old antagonism between Ma`adites 1 (See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• NORTHERN

northern tribes) and Yemenites (original See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern tribes), accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged to the former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division, gave rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one dangerous pretender—some of them of the reigning family itself—contended with the caliph for the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty, and must be crushed coite que collie . It is only by the detailed enumeration of these opposing forces that we can See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the heavy task that lay before the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince of the Believers, and of the amount of tact and ability which his position demanded . The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely difficult . Never perhaps has the system of undermining authority by continual slandering been applied on such a scale as by the Alids and the Abbasids . The Omayyads were accused by their numerous missionaries of every imaginable See also:

• VICE

vice; in their, hands Islam was not safe; it would be a godly work to extirpate them from the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth .

When the Abbasids had occupied the throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion . But not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, they carried their hostility to a further point . The See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official history of the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is coloured by Abbasid feeling to such an extent that we can scarcely distinguish the true from the false . An example of this occurs at the outset in the assertion that Moawiya deliberately refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and indeed that it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of the See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot . The facts seem to contradict this view . When, ten See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks before the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt and Irak, pretending that they were on their See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage to Mecca, but wanted to bring before the caliph their complaints against his vicegerents, nobody could have the slightest suspicion that the life of the caliph was in danger; indeed it was only during i Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Mocjar and the See also:

• RAB

Rab'ia tribes . Qais is the principal See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Modar . the few days that Othman was besieged in his house that the danger became obvious . If the caliph then, as the chroniclers tell, sent a See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message to Moawiya for help, his messenger could not have accomplished See also:

• HALF

half the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to Damascus when the catastrophe took place . There is no real See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt that the painful See also:

• NEWS

news fell on Moawiya unexpectedly, and that he, as mightiest representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his own the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of avenging the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime . He could not but view Ali in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of an See also:

• ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex, a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the ac- is possibly due to confusion with " accomplish," to complete, Lat. complere, to fill up)

accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did not abet the murderers, yet he took them under his See also:

• PROTECTION

protection . An See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

acknowledgment of Ali as caliph by Moawiya before he had cleared himself from suspicion was therefore quite impossible .

r . The Reign of Moawiya.—Moawiya, son of the well-known Meccan chief Abu Sofian, embraced Islam together with his father and his brother Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and was, like them, treated with the greatest distinction . He was even chosen to be one of the secretaries of Mahomet . When Abu Bekr sent his troops for the conquest of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of Abu Sofian, held one of the chief commands, with Moawiya as his See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant . In the year 639 Omar named him governor of Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the north of Syria and Mesopotamia . To him was committed the conduct of the war against the Byzantine emperor, which he continued with energy, at first only on land, but later, when the caliph had at last given in to his urgent representations, at See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea also . In the year 34 (A.D . 6S5) was fought off the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• LYCIA

Lycia the great See also:

• NAVAL

naval battle, which bec