CANADA  . The Dominion of Canada comprises the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HALF

half of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America and its adjacent islands, excepting See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska, which belongs to the See also:

• UNITED

United States, and See also:

• NEWFOUNDLAND

Newfoundland, still a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . Its boundary on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is the parallel of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude 490, between the Pacific Ocean and See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake-of-the-See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

Woods, then a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of small lakes and See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers eastward to the mouth of See also:

• PIGEON

Pigeon See also:

• RIVER

river on the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of Lake See also:

• SUPERIOR

Superior, and the See also:

• GREAT

Great Lakes with their connecting rivers to See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall, on the St See also:

• LAWRENCE
• LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST
• LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786—1852)
• LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814–1886)
• LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827–1876)
• LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879)
• LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806–1857)
• LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769–1830)
• LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697–1775)

Lawrence . From this eastward to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine the boundary is an artificial See also:

• LINE

line nearly corresponding to See also:

• LAT

lat . 450; then an irregular line partly determined by watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• FUNDY, BAY OF

Fundy . The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an irregular line a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles inland from the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast along the " See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan handle " of Alaska to See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount St See also:

• ELIAS, JOHN (1774-1841)

Elias, and the See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian of 1410 to the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic Ocean . A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to Newfoundland . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—In spite of these restrictions of its natural coast line on both the Atlantic and the .Pacific, Canadais admirably provided with harbours on both oceans . The Gulf of St Lawrence with its much indented shores and the coast of Nova See also:

• SCOTIA (Gr. o'Karca, shadow or darkness)

Scotia and New See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, but the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern ones open all the See also:

• YEAR

year See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round; and on the Pacific British See also:

• COLUMBIA

Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken See also:

• SHORE

shore of the United States to the south . The See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long stretches of sheltered See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to See also:

• QUEBEC

Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage for the See also:

• COASTING

coasting See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . The greatly varied Arctic coast line of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much clogged with ice to be of much See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical use, but See also:

• HUDSON
• HUDSON, GEORGE (180o-1871)
• HUDSON, HENRY
• HUDSON, JOHN (1662–1719)

Hudson Bay, a mediterranean See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea 85o m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading See also:

• SHIPS

ships and whalers, and may become a great outlet for the See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat of western Canada, though closed by ice except for four months in the summer . Of the nine provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt See also:

• WATER

water, See also:

• MANITOBA

Manitoba, See also:

• ALBERTA

Alberta and See also:

• SASKATCHEWAN
• SASKATCHEWAN (Cree: " Rapid River ")

Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended to Hudson Bay .

See also:

• ONTARIO
• ONTARIO, LAKE

Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension, See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James Bay, and there is no See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability that the shallow harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping, though See also:

• CHURCHILL (MISSINNIPPI or ENGLISH)
• CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764)
• CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER (1849-1895)

Churchill See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an important See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain See also:

• PORT

port . What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is, however, made up by the busy See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic of the Great Lakes . The physical features of Canada are comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, and See also:

• DRAWN

drawn on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, more than half of its See also:

• SURFACE

surface sloping gently inwards towards the shallow See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the south-east and south-west . In the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main it is a broad trough, wider towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay occupying much of its north-eastern See also:

• PART

part, while to the west broad plains rise gradually to the See also:

• FOOT

foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern member of the See also:

• CORDILLERA

Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America . The physical geography of Canada is so closely See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with its See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology that at least an outline of the See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological factors involved in its See also:

• HISTORY

history is necessary to understand the See also:

• PRESENT

present physiography . The See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the third at the end of the Mesozoic . The Archean mountain chains, which enclosed the Geology. present region of Hudson Bay, were so See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient that they had already been worn down almost to a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain before the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Palaeozoic sediments were laid down . This ruling geological and physical feature of the North See also:

• AMERICAN

American continent has been named by E . See also:

• SUESS, EDUARD (1831– )

Suess the " See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays, largely derived from its own See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste, were deposited as nearly See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal beds, in many places still almost undisturbed . Later the sediments lying to the south-east of this " protaxis," or See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however, extends only a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance into Canada . The Mesozoic sediments were almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis, upon the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the See also:

• PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract. Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow)

prairie region they are still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up into the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast region . The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest, and the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving the name of mountains .

Owing to this unsymmetric development of North America the main structural See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed is towards its western side, on the south coinciding with the Rocky Mountains proper, but to the northward falling back to ranges situated further west in the same mountain region . The great central See also:

• AREA

area of Canada is drained towards Hudson Bay, but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Mackenzie flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and the other to the south-east of the Archean protaxis . While these ancient events shaped the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography in a broad way, its final development was comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent, during the glacial See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, when the loose materials were scoured from some regions and spread out as See also:

• BOULDER
• BOULDER (short for " boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed. bullersten, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a stream, from bullra, to make a loud noise)

boulder See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, or piled up as moraines in others; and the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original water-ways were blocked in many places . The See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat of the ice See also:

• LEFT

left Canada much in its present See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition except for certain See also:

• POST

post-glacial changes of level which seem to be still in progress . For this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason the region has a very youthful topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that the rivers have not long been at See also:

• WORK

work . The uneven See also:

• CARVING

carving down of the older mountain systems, especially that of the Archean protaxis, and the disorderly scattering of glacial material provide most of the lake basins so characteristic of Canada . Lakes and Rivers . As a result of the geological causes just mentioned many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes of all sizes and shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles long and a thousand feet deep to ponds lost to sight in the See also:

• FOREST

forest . Thousands of these lakes have been mapped more or less carefully, and every new survey brings to See also:

• LIGHT

light small lakes hitherto unknown to the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . For See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers they can be compared only with those of See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland and Scandinavia in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and for See also:

• SIZE

size with those of eastern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa; but for the great extent of lake-filled See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country there is no comparison . From the See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map it will be noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes occur within five See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, and belong to the Archean protaxis or project beyond its edges into the Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks which lean against it . The most famous of the lakes are those of the St Lawrence See also:

• SYSTEM

system, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form part of the southern boundary of Canada and are shared with the United States; but many others have the right to be called " Great Lakes " from their magnitude .

There are nine others which have a length of more than See also:

• IOO

ioo m., and See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-five which are more than 50 M. long . Within the Archean protaxis they are of the most varied shapes, since they represent merely portions of the irregular surface inundated by some morainic See also:

• DAM

dam at the lowest point . Comparatively few have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water, the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority See also:

• RUNNING

running into long irregular bays and containing many islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian Bay and Lake-of-the-Woods . In the Cordilleran region on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the lakes are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections of mountain valleys occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords of the adjoining coast are valleys occupied by the sea . The lakes of the different regions present the same features as the nearest sea coasts but on a smaller scale . The majority of the lakes have rocky shores and islands and great variety of See also:

• DEPTH

depth, many of the smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and are slowly filling up with See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• MATTER

matter, ultimately becoming See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat bogs, the muskegs of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian . Most of Canada is so well watered that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the See also:

• QUILL

Quill and Old Wives lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets . In such cases the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution which are deposited as a white rim round the basin towards the end of the summer when the amount of water has been greatly reduced by evaporation . It is interesting to find maritime See also:

• PLANTS

plants, such as the samphire, growing on their shores a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet above it . In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over at the lowest point from one basin into the next below, making chains of lakes with no long or well-defined channels between, since in so See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young a country there has not yet been See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for the rivers to have carved wide valleys . Thus See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe navigation may be carried on for hundreds of miles, with here and there a water-fall or a rapid requiring a See also:

• PORTAGE

portage of a few hundred yards or at most a mile or two . The river systems are therefore in many cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive connecting links between the lakes receive different names .

The best example of this is the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar one of the St Lawrence, which may be said to begin as See also:

• NIPIGON [NEEPIGON, OR NEPIGON]

Nipigon river and to take the names St See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary's, St Clair, See also:

• DETROIT

Detroit and See also:

• NIAGARA
• NIAGARA, FORT

Niagara, before finally flowing from Lake Ontario to the sea under its proper name . As theselakes are great reservoirs and settling basins, the rivers which empty them are unusually steady in level and contain beautifully clear water . The St Lawrence varies only a few feet in the year and always has pellucid bluish-See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green water, while the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi, whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of the Great Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-water and is loaded with mud . The St Lawrence is far the most important Canadian river from the historic and economic points of view, since it provided the main artery of exploration in early days, and with its canals past rapids and between lakes still serves as a great See also:

• HIGHWAY

highway of trade between the interior of the continent and the seaports of See also:

• MONTREAL

Montreal and Quebec . It is probable that politically Canada would have followed the course of the States to the south but for the planting of a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French colony with widely extended trading posts along the easily ascended channel of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was the ultimate See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union between Canada and the empire . North of the See also:

• DIVIDE

divide between the St Lawrence system and Hudson Bay there are many large rivers converging on that inland sea, such as See also:

• WHALE

Whale river, Big river, East Main, See also:

• RUPERT (1352—1410)
• RUPERT (HRODBERT), ST
• RUPERT, PRINCE, COUNT PALATINE OF THE RHINE AND DUKE OF BAVARIA (1619—1682)

Rupert and Nottaway rivers coming in from See also:

• UNGAVA

Ungava and northern Quebec; See also:

• MOOSE

Moose and See also:

• ALBANY
• ALBANY, DUKES OF
• ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF (1752-1824)

Albany rivers with important tributaries from northern Ontario; and See also:

• SEVERN
• SEVERN, JOSEPH (1793-1879)

Severn, See also:

• NELSON
• NELSON, HORATIO NELSON, VISCOUNT (1758-1805)
• NELSON, ROBERT (s656-1715)

Nelson and Churchill rivers from the south-west . All of these are rapid and shallow, affording navigation only for-canoes; but the largest of them, Nelson river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, See also:

• WINNIPEG

Winnipeg, See also:

• WINNIPEGOSIS

Winnipegosis and Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, and receive the waters of Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and many others emptying into Winnipeg river from Ontario; of Red river coming in from the United States to the south; and of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river . The parallel of 490 approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters from the streams going south to the See also:

• MISSOURI

Missouri, though a few small tributaries of the latter river begin on Canadian territory . The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of northern British Columbia are drained through the See also:

• ATHABASCA (Athapescow), or ELK

Athabasca and See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

Peace rivers, first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, then north through Slave river to Great Slave Lake, and finally north-west through Mackenzie river to the Arctic Ocean . If measured to the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of Peace river the Mackenzie has a length of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than See also:

• I000

i000 m. of navigation for stern-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel steamers . Unfortunately, like other northward-flowing rivers, it does not See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead down to a frequented sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur-trading posts . The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta in lat .

69°, and in its See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season the head-waters pour down their torrents before the thick ice of the See also:

• LOWER

lower part with its severer See also:

• CLIMATE

climate has yet given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and giving rise to widespread floods along the lower reaches . Similar flooding takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in several other important northward-flowing rivers in Canada, the St Lawrence at Montreal affording the best-known instance . Second among the great north-western rivers is the See also:

• YUKON

Yukon, which begins its course about i8 m. from See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide-water on an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea and just within the Canadian border . It flows first to the north, then to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into Alaska, and then south-west, ending in See also:

• BERING (BEHRING), VITUS (1680-1741)

Bering Sea, the northward See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of the Pacific, 2000 M. from its head-waters . Of its course 1800 m. are continuously navigable for suitable steamers, so that most of the traffic connected with the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• KLONDIKE

Klondike See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields passes over its waters . The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through British Columbia and are much shorter, though the two southern ones carry a great See also:

• VOLUME

volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow and See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain in the Cordilleran region . The Columbia is the largest, but after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., it passes into the United States . With its expansions, the narrow and deep Arrow lakes, it is an important waterway in the Kootenay region . The See also:

• FRASER
• FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819– )
• FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885)
• FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783--1856)
• FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Fraser, next in size but farther north, follows a similar course, entering the sea at See also:

• VANCOUVER
• VANCOUVER, GEORGE (c. 1758-1798)

Vancouver; while the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are much shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and Liard rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory . All of these rivers are waterways of some importance in their lower course, and are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats supplying the posts and See also:

• MINING

mining camps of the interior with their requirements . In most cases they reach the coast through deep valleys or profound canyons, and the transcontinental See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways find their way beside them, the Canadian Pacific following at first tributaries of the Columbia near its great See also:

• BEND

bend, and after-wards See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson river and the Fraser; while the See also:

• GRAND

Grand See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

Trunk Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries . The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing east and north is very See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, but there are two lakes, the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee's See also:

• PUNCH

Punch Bowl and Fortress Lake, right astride of it, sending their waters both east and west; and there is a mountain somewhat south of Fortress Lake whose melting snows drain in three directions into tributaries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca, so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the Atlantic (Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans .

The divide between the St Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents one or two lakes draining each way, but in a much less striking position, since the water-parting is flat and boggy instead of being a lofty range of mountains . The rivers of Canada, except the St Lawrence, are losing their importance as means of communication from year to year, as railways spread over the interior and See also:

• CROSS

cross the mountains to the Pacific; but from the point of view of the physical geographer there are few things more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in which they drain the country . As most of the Canadian rivers have waterfalls on their course, they must become of more and more importance as See also:

• SOURCES

sources of See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The St Lawrence system, for instance, generates many thousand See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-power at Sault Ste See also:

• MARIE

Marie, Niagara and the See also:

• LACHINE

Lachine rapids . All the larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this way, and many new enterprises of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind are projected in eastern Canada; but the. thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the Rocky Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they will some See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day find use in manufactures like those of See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . The Archean Protaxis.—The broad geological and See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the more important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more detail, and for that purpose five areas may be distinguished, much the largest being the Archean protaxis, covering about 2,000,000 sq. m . It includes Labrador, Ungava and most of Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south; and the western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to' the Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river . The southern parts of the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, belong to it also . This vast area, shaped like a broad-limbed V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre, is made up chiefly of monotonous and barren Laurentian See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite; but scattered through it are important stretches of See also:

• KEEWATIN

Keewatin and Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges . The Keewatin and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and more or less metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• INTEREST

interest for their ore deposits, which include most of the important metals, particularly See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper and See also:

• SILVER

silver . The southern portion of the protaxis is now being opened up by railways, but the far greater northern part is known only along the lakes and rivers which are navigable by canoe . Though once consisting of great mountain ranges there are now no Iofty elevations in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador, where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach 6000 ft. or more .

In every other part the surface is hilly or mammilated, the harder rocks, such as granite or greenstone, rising as rounded knobs, or in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of schists forming narrow ridges, while the softer parts form valleys generally floored with lakes . From the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of any of the higher hills one See also:

• SEES

sees that the region is really a somewhat dissected plain, for all the hills rise to about the same level with a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform skyline at the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon . The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as a See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, but probably half of it falls below r000 ft . The See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland part includes from roo to Soo M. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake Winnipeg . Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of about 1500 ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at a few points near Lake Superior and on the eastern coast of Labrador . In most parts the Laurentian hills are See also:

• BARE

bare roches moutonnees scoured by the glaciers of the Ice See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age, but a broad See also:

• BAND

band of clay See also:

• LAND

land extends across northern Quebec and Ontario just north of the divide . The edges of the protaxis are in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often have a descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they have cut back deep See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges or canyons into the tableland . The waterfalls are utilized at a few points to work up into See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood pulp the forests of spruce which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover much of Labrador, Quebec and Ontario . Most of the See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine that formerly See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew on the Archean at the. northern fringe of the settlements has been cut, but the lumberman is still advancing northwards and approaching the northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine forests, beyond. which spruces, tamarack (See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch) and See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar are the prevalent trees . As one advances northward the See also:

• TIMBER

timber grows smaller and includes fewer See also:

• SPECIES

species of trees, and finally the timber line is reached, near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and somewhat farther south on the Labrador side . Beyond this to the north are the " barren grounds on which herds of caribou (See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer) and See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk ox pasture, migrating from north to south according to the season . There are no permanent ice sheets known on the mainland: of north-eastern Canada, but some of the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are partially covered with glaciers on, their higher points .

Unless by its See also:

• MINERAL

mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, the barren grounds can never support a white See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population and have little to tempt even the Indian or See also:

• ESKIMO, ESKIMOS

Eskimo, who visit it occasionally in summer to See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

hunt the See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer in their migrations . The See also:

• ACADIAN

Acadian Region.—The "maritime provinces" of eastern Canada, including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, may be considered together; and to these provinces as politically bounded may be added, from a physical point of view, the analogous south-eastern part of Quebec—the. entire area being designated the Acadian region- Taken as 'a whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, maybe regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian mountain system that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the United States . The rocks underlying it have been subjected to successive foldings and crumplings by forces acting chiefly from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with alternating See also:

• PRO

pro-longed periods of waste and denudation . The main See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the south-eastern part of Quebec,forming the Notre See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

Dame Mountains, and terminates in the Gaspe See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula as the Shickshock Mountains . The first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, but the Shickshocks rise above 3000 ft . The See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of New Brunswick exhibits approximately, parallel but subordinate ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly flat See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian and Carboniferous rocks . The peninsula of Nova Scotia, connected by a narrow See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still: another and more definite system; of parallel ridges,. deeply fretted on all sides by bays and harbours . A series of quartzites and slates referred to the See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian, and holding numerous and important See also:

• VEINS

veins of auriferous See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern side, while valuable See also:

• COAL

coal-fields occur in Cape See also:

• BRETON, BRITTON
• BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE

Breton and on parts of its shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence . In New Brunswick the Carboniferous rocks occupy a large area, but the coal seams so far See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed are thin and unimportant . Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova Scotia and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already mentioned, have not yet become the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of important See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries . Copper and , See also:

• ASBESTOS

asbestos are the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal mineral products of that part of Quebec included in the region now under description, although many other minerals are known and already worked to some extent . Extensive tracts of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good arable land exist in many parts of the Acadian region .

Its surface was originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of the forest continue to hold a prominent place . Prince Edward Island, the smallest province of*Canada, is low and undulating, based on Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording a red and very fertile See also:

• SOIL

soil, much of which is under cultivation . The St Lawrence Plain.—As the St Lawrence invited the earliest settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication with the Old See also:

• WORLD

World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest and most populous part of the country on its shores and near the Great Lakes which it leads up to; and this early development was greatly helped by the flat and fertile plain which follows it inland for over 600 m. from the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Quebec to Lake See also:

• HURON
• HURON (a French term, from huge', bristled, early used as an expression of contempt, signifying "lout ")

Huron . This affords the largest stretch of arable land in eastern Canada, including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec with an area of some 38,000 sq. m . In Quebec the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief portion is south of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal to the mountains of the " Eastern Townships," while in Ontario it extends from the Archean on the ,north to the St Lawrence and Lakes Ontario, See also:

• ERIE

Erie and Huron . The whole region is underlain by nearly horizontal and undisturbed rocks of the Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward . Superimposed on these rocks are See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of St Lawrence . Though See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum and salt occur in the south-west peninsula of Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and the real See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of this See also:

• DISTRICT

district lies in its soil and climate, which permit the growth of all the products of temperate regions . Georgian Bay and the northern part of Lake Huron with the whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the foot of the Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes; so that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an elevated, rocky and mostly forest-covered See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of the Archean from the newer and far more extensive See also:

• FARM

farm lands of the west . For many years this southern projection of the northern See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness was spanned by only one railway, and offered a serious hindrance to the development of the regions beyond; but settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly filling up the See also:

• GAP

gap between east and west . The Interior See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental Plain.—Passing westward by See also:

• RAIL

rail from the forest-covered Archcan with its rugged granite hills, the,flat prairie of Manitoba with its rich See also:

• GRASSES

grasses and multitude of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers comes as a very striking contrast, introducing the Interior Continental plain in its most typical development . This great plain runs north-westward between the border of the Archean protaxis and the line of the Rocky Mountains, including most of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan and most of Alberta .

At the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international boundary in lat . 49° it is 800 m. wide, but in lat . 56° it has narrowed to 400 M. in width, and to the north of lat . 62° it is still narrower and somewhat interrupted, but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic Ocean about the mouth of the Mackenzie . This interior plain of the continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards the north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime-stones and other rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon the downward slope of the Laurentian Shield . Most of the plains are underlain by Cretaceous and early See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary shales and sandstones lying nearly unaltered and undisturbed where they were deposited, although now raised far above sea-level, particularly along the border of the 'Rocky Mountains where they were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised . These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing to their comparatively soft See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character this has been, in the main, nearly uniform, and has produced no very bold features of See also:

• RELIEF

relief, Coal and lignitic coal are the principal economic minerals met with in this central plain, though natural See also:

• GAS

gas occurs and is put to use near See also:

• MEDICINE

Medicine See also:

• HAT

Hat, and "