See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

CANAL (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CANALIS (also " canal " and " channel "; from the Latin)

canalis, " channel " and " See also:

• KENNEL

kennel " being doublets of the word)  , an artificial See also:

• WATER

water course used for the drainage of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low lands, for See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation (q.v.), or more especially for the purpose of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation by boats, See also:

• BARGES

barges or See also:

• SHIPS

ships . Probably the first canals were made for irrigation, but in very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times they came also to be used for navigation, as in See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans constructed various See also:

• WORKS

works of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, and See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne projected a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of waterways connecting the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main and the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine with the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, while in See also:

• CHINA

China the See also:

• GRAND

Grand See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

Canal, joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, formed an important artery of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, serving also for irrigation . But although it appears from Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo that inclines were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways suffered in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general from the defect that no method being known of conveniently transferring boats from one level to another they were only practicable between points that See also:

• LAY

lay on nearly the same level; and inland navigation could not become generally useful and applicable until this defect had been remedied by the employment of locks . See also:

• GREAT

Great doubts exist as to the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, and even the nation, that first introduced locks . Some writers attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a century earlier than in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy locks were used in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland where canals are very numerous, owing to the favourable See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical conditions . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the contrivance has been claimed for See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian school, and it is said that two See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers Domenico of See also:

• VITERBO

Viterbo constructed a See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock-chamber enclosed bya pair of See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates in 1481, and that in 1487 Leonardo da See also:

• VINCI, LEONARDO (1690-173o)

Vinci completed six locks uniting the canals of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan . Be that as it may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th century gave a new See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character to inland navigation and laid the basis of its successful See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension . The See also:

• LANGUEDOC

Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as the See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer of the canals of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Joining the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BISCAY (Vizcaya)
• BISCAY, BAY OF (Fr. Golfe de Gascogne; Sp. Golfo de Vizcaya)

Biscay and the Mediterranean it is 148 M. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and rises 62o ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level with 119 locks, its See also:

• DEPTH

depth being about 61 ft . It was designed by See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul Riquet de Bonrepos (1604-1680) and was finished in 1681 . With it and the still earlier See also:

• BRIARE

Briare canal (1605-1642) See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France began that policy of canal construction which has provided her with over 3000 M. of canals, in addition to over 4600 m. of navigable See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers .

In See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great undertook the construction of a system of canals about the beginning of the 18th century, and in See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden a canal with locks, connecting See also:

• ESKILSTUNA

Eskilstuna with See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• MALAR

Malar, was finished in ,6o6 . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest artificial canal is the See also:

• FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870)

Foss Dyke, a relic of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman occupation . It extends from See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln to the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent near Torksey (ii m.), and formed a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin but now filled up, which ran from Lincoln to See also:

• PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough (40 m.) . See also:

• CAMDEN
• CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, 1ST EARL (1714-1794)
• CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, 2ND EARL
• CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623)

Camden in his Britannia says. that the Foss Dyke was deepened and to some extent rendered navigable in 1121 . Little, however, was done in making canals in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain until the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the ,8th century, though before that date some progress had been made in rendering some of the larger rivers navigable . In 1759 the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RP DUKE OF (1736-1803)
• BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON

Bridgewater obtained See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers to construct a canal between See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester and his collieries at See also:

• WORSLEY
• WORSLEY, PHILIP STANHOPE (1835-1866)

Worsley, and this See also:

• WORK

work, of which See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• BRINDLEY, JAMES (1716-1772)

Brindley was the engineer, and which was opened for See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in 1761,was followed by a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of great activity in canal construction, which, however, came to an end with the introduction of See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways . According to See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence given before the royal See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission on canals in 1906 the See also:

• TOTAL

total mileage of existing canals in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom was 3901 . In the United States the first canal was made in 1792-1796 at See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• HADLEY
• HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856– )
• HADLEY, JAMES (1821–1872)

Hadley, See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts, and the canal-system, though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has attained a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, See also:

• OHIO

Ohio, and See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania . The splendid inland navigation system of See also:

• CANADA

Canada mainly consists of natural lakes and rivers, and the artificial waterways are largely " lateral " canals, cut in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to enable vessels to avoid rapids in the rivers . (See the articles on the various countries for accounts of the canal-systems they possess.) The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction were mostly of the class known as See also:

• BARGE (Med. Lat. barca, possibly connected with Lat. baris, Gr. flaps, a boat used on the Nile)

barge or See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat canals, and owing to their limited depth and breadth were only available for vessels of small See also:

• SIZE

size . But with the growth of commerce the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage was seen of cutting canals of such dimensions as to enable them to accommodate sea-going ships . Such See also:

• SHIP

ship-canals, which from an See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering point of view chiefly differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the voyage between two seas by cutting through an intervening See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus, or to convert important inland places into sea-ports .

An early example of the first class is afforded by the Caledonian Canal (q.v.), while among later ones may be mentioned the See also:

• SUEZ

Suez Canal (q.v.), the Kaiser Wilhelm, See also:

• NORD

Nord-Ostsee or See also:

• KIEL

Kiel Canal, connecting Brunsbiittel at the mouth of the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe with Kiel, (q.v.) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have been proposed across the isthmus that joins See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North and South See also:

• AMERICA

America (see See also:

• PANAMA

PANAMA CANAL) . Examples of the second class are the Manchester Ship Canal and the canal that runs from Zeebrugge on the North Sea to,See also:

• BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or place of bridges)

Bruges (q.v.) . Construction.—In laying out a See also:

• LINE

line of canal the engineer is more restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway, Since water runs downhill, gradients are inadmissibLe, and the canal must either be made on one See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform level or must be adapted to the general rise or fall of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country through which it passes by being constructed in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of level reaches at varying heights above a chosen datum line. each dos ed by a lock or some See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent See also:

• DEVICE

device to enable vessels to be transferred from one to another . To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings of valleys, but from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time it will become necessary to See also:

• CROSS

cross a sudden depression by the aid of an See also:

• EMBANKMENT

embankment or See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct, while a piece of rising ground or a See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill may involve a cutting or a See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel . Brindley took the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell at See also:

• BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH (1766-1815)
• BARTON, BERNARD (1784–1849)
• BARTON, CLARA (1821– )
• BARTON, ELIZABETH (c. 1506–1534)

Barton by means of an aqueduct of three See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft., and T . See also:

• TELFORD, THOMAS (1757—.1834)

Telford arranged that the See also:

• ELLESMERE

Ellesmere canal should cross the See also:

• DEE
• DEE (Welsh, Dyfrdwy;, Lat.., and in Milton, Deva)

Dee valley at See also:

• PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524–1606)

Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly by aqueduct . The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft. above the ground, when it was succeeded by an aqueduct, See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food ft. long and 127 ft. above the river, consisting of a See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron trough supported on iron arches with stone piers . Occasionally when a navigable stream has to be crossed, a See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing viaduct is necessary to allow See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping to pass . The first was that built by See also:

• SIR

Sir E . See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

Leader See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams to replace Brindley's aqueduct at Barton, which was only-high enough to give See also:

• ROOM

room for barges (see See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

MAN-See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

CHESTER SHIP CANAL) . One of the earliest canal tunnels was made in 1766–1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and See also:

• MERSEY

Mersey canal; it is 288o yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide, and has no See also:

• TOW

tow-path, the boats being propelled by men lying on their backs and pushing with their feet against the tunnel walls (" leggers ") . A•second tunnel, parallel to this but 16 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by Telford in 1827 .

Standedge tunnel, on the See also:

• HUDDERSFIELD

Huddersfield canal, is over 3 M. long, and is also worked by leggers . The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of water-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply, are regulated by the size of the vessels which are to be used on it . According to J . M . See also:

• RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN (182o-1872)

Rankine, the depth of water and sectional See also:

• AREA

area of waterway should be such as not to cause any material increase of the resistance to the See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling these conditions: Least breadth of bottom =2X greatest breadth of boat . Least depth of water =1z ft.+greatest See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught of boat . Least area of waterway =6Xgreatest midship See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of boat . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide at the bottom, which is See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water level, with a depth of 4 or 5 ft., the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of slope of the sides varying with the nature of the See also:

• SOIL

soil . To retain the water in porous ground, and especially on embankments, a strong watertight lining of puddle or tempered See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay must be provided on the See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed and sides of the channel . Puddle is made of clay which has been finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being supplied until it is in a semi-plastic See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . It is used in thin layers, each of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the See also:

• LOWER

lower stratum . The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft .

To prevent the erosion of the sides at the water-line by the See also:

• WASH, THE

wash from the boats, it may be necessary to See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch them with stones or See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face them with brushwood . In some of the old canals the slopes have been cut away and See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical walls built to retain the towing-paths, with the result of adding materially to the sectional area of the waterway . A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of water calculated to last over the driest See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season of the See also:

• YEAR

year . If there be no natural lake available in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district for supper supply . 'storage and supply, or if the engineer cannot draw upon some stream of sufficient size, he must See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form artificial reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must be attended to in selecting the positions of these and in constructing them are the same as those for drinking-water supply, except that the purity of the water is not a See also:

• MATTER

matter of moment . They must be situated at such an See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation that the water from them may flow to the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit-level of the canal, and if the expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command a sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the canal by evaporation from the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, percolation through the bed, and lockage . If the supply be inadequate, the draught of the boats plying on the canal may have to be reduced in a dryseason, and the consequent decrease in the size of their cargoes will both lessen the carrying capacity of the canal and increase the working expenses in relation to the See also:

• TONNAGE

tonnage handled . Again, since the See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption of water in lockage increases both with. the size of the locks and the frequency with which they are used, the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may put a limit to the See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of traffic possible on a canal or may prohibit its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under modern conditions . It may be pointed out that the up consumes more water than the down traffic . An ascending boat on entering a lock displaces a See also:

• VOLUME

volume of water equal to its submerged capacity . The water so displaced flows into the lower reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through the lock is replaced by water flowing from the upper reach . A descending boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its submerged capacity, but in this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the water flows back into the higher reach where it is retained when the gates are closed .

An essential See also:

• ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join)

adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste-weirs to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge surplus water accumulating during floods, which, if not provided with an exit, may waste. overflow the.tow-path, and cause a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach in the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, weirs and stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining Stto s lands . The number and positions of these waste-weirs must depend on the nature of the country through which the canal passes . Wherever the canal crosses a stream a waste-See also:

• WEIR (from O. Eng. wer, a dam; cognate with werian, to defend, guard; cf. Ger. Wehr, defence)
• WEIR, ROBERT WALTER (1803-1889)

weir should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes of water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not only waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but also artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams . These waste-weirs are placed at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top water-level of the canal, so that when a See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood occurs the water flows over them and thus relieves the banks . Stop-gates are necessary at See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short intervals of a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles for the purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches, so that in the event of a breach the gates may be shut, and the discharge of water confined to the small reach intercepted between two of them, instead of extending throughout the whole line of canal . In broad canals these stop-gates may be formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates being made to shut in opposite directions . In small works they may be made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow points of the canal under road See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, or at contractions made at intermediate points to receive them . Self-acting stop-gates have been tried, but have not proved trustworthy . When See also:

• REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again)

repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of the water being run off by " off-lets " from a short reach, and afterwards restored with but little interruption of the traffic . These off-lets are pipes placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided with valves which can be opened when required . They are generally formed at aqueducts or bridges See also:

• CROSSING

crossing rivers, where the contents of the canal between the stop-gates can be run off into the stream . Locks are See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers, constructed of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork, See also:

• MASONRY

masonry or See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete, and provided with gates at each end, by the aid of which vessels are transferred from one reach of Locks. the canal to another .

To enable a boat to ascend, the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of water from the upper reach are closed . The sluices at the lower end of the lock are then opened, and when the level of the water in the lock has fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes in to the lock . The lower gates and sluices being then closed, the upper sluices are opened, and when the water rising in the lock has floated the boat up the level of the upper reach the upper gates are opened and it passes out . For a descending boat the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure is reversed . The sluices by which the lock is filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks, or consist of openings in the gates in small ones . The gates are generally of See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when open, and closing against sills in the lock bottom when shut . Dimensions . In small narrow locks single gates only are necessary; in large locks pairs of gates are required, fitting together at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head or " See also:

• MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. j4rpa, a band, head-band, head-dress)

mitre-See also:

• POST

post " when closed . The vertical See also:

• TIMBER

timber at the end of the See also:

• GATE

gate is known as the " See also:

• HEEL

heel-post," and at its See also:

• FOOT

foot is a casting that admits an iron See also:

• PIVOT (Fr. pivot; probably connected with Ital. pivolo, peg, pin, diminutive of piva, pipa, pipe)

pivot which is fixed in the lock bottom, and on which the gate turns . Iron straps See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the head of the heel-post are let into the lock-See also:

• COPING (from " cope," Lat. capa)

coping to support the gate . The gates are opened and closed by See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance beams projecting over the lock See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, by gearing or in cases where they are very large and heavy by the See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• ACTION

action of a See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram . In order to economize water canal locks are made only a few inches wider than the vessels they have to accommodate .

The See also:

• ENGLISH

English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or 8 ft. in See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft. in width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit two of the narrower canal boats side by side . In general canal locks are just long enough to accommodate the longest vessels using the navigation . In some cases, however, See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision is made for admitting a See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train of barges; such long locks have sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective length is reduced when a single See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel is passing . The lift of canal locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining reaches, is in general about 8 or ro ft., but sometimes is as little as See also:

• R2(rt-s2)

r2 ft . On the Canal du Centre (See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium) there are locks with a lift of 17 ft., and on the St See also:

• DENIS (DIoNysms), SAINT
• DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800)

Denis canal near La See also:

• VILLETTE, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE (1736-1793)

Villette basins in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris there is one with a lift of 322 ft . In cases where a considerable difference of level has to be surmounted the locks are placed See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together in a series or " See also:

• FLIGHT

flight," so that the lower gates of one serve also as the upper gates of the next below . To See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save water, expecially where the lift is considerable, side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs into which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead of being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards used for partially filling the chamber again . See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

Double locks, that is, two locks placed side by side and communicating by a passage which can be opened or closed at will, also tend to save water, since each serves as a side See also:

• POND
• POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836)

pond to the other . The same advantage is gained with double flights of locks, and time also is saved since vessels can pass up and down simultaneously . A still greater See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of water can be effected by the use of inclined planes or vertical lifts in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of locks . In China Inclines. See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude inclines appear to have been used at an early date, vessels being carried down a sloping See also:

• PLANE

plane of stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up it by capstans . On the See also:

• BUDE

Bude canal (England) this See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan was adopted in an improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed being fitted with wheels to facilitate their course over the inclines .

Another variant, often adopted as an adjunct to locks where many small See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure .boats have to be dealt with, is to See also:

• FIT

fit the incline itself with rollers, upon which the boats travel . In some cases the boats are conveyed on a wheeled trolley or See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

cradle See also:

• RUNNING

running on rails; this plan was adopted on the See also:

• MORRIS
• MORRIS [MORRISON], CLARA (1849– )
• MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (1752–1816)
• MORRIS, JOHN (1810-1886)
• MORRIS, RICHARD (1833–1894)
• MORRIS, ROBERT (1734–1806)
• MORRIS, SIR LEWIS (1833–1907)
• MORRIS, WILLIAM (1834-1896)

Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines having gradients of about i in ro, the rise of each varying from 44 to See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo ft . Between the Ourcq canal and the See also:

• MARNE

Marne, near See also:

• MEAUX

Meaux, the difference of level is about 40 ft., and barges weighing about 70 tons are taken from the one to the other on a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire rope over an incline nearly Soo yards long . But heavy barges are See also:

• APT

apt to be strained by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this objection they are sometimes See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up the inclines floating In a tank or See also:

• CAISSON (from the Fr. caisse, the variant form " cassoon " being adapted from the Ital. casone)

caisson filled with water and running on wheels . This arrangement was utilized about 1840 on the See also:

• CHARD
• CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT (1847-1897)

Chard canal (England), and 10 years later it was adapted at Blackhill on the Monkland canal (See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland) to replace a double flight of locks, in consequence of the traffic having been interrupted by insufficiency of water . There the height to be overcome was 66 ft . Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge, were laid down on a gradient of r in ro, and on these ran two carriages having wrought iron, water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each end, in which the barges floated partially but not wholly sup-ported by water . The carriages, with the barge and water,weighed about 8o tons each, and were arranged to countess balance each other, one going up as the other was going down . The See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power required was provided by two high pressure See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam engines of 25 h.p., See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving two large drums round which was coiled, in opposite directions, the 2-See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch wire rope that hauled the caissons . An incline constructed on the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union canal at Foxton (England) to replace ro locks giving a total rise of 75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two canal boats of 33 tons . It is in some respects like the Monkland canal incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails on an incline of 1 in 14, See also:

• BROADSIDE

broadside on, and the boats are entirely waterborne . Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic See also:

• ACCUMULATOR

accumulator which enables hydraulic power to be used in keeping the caisson in position at the top of the incline while the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint being . maintained with the final portion of the canal during the operation .

The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked by hydraulic power . The incline is capable of passing 200 canal boats in 12 See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men . Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage at places where the difference in level occurs in a short length of canal, since otherwise long embankments or Lifts . aqueducts would be necessary to obtain sites for their construction . An early example was built in 1809 at Tardebigge on the See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester and See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham canal . It consisted of a timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of water, counterpoised by heavy weights carried on timber platforms . The lift of 12 ft. was effected in about three minutes by two men working winches . Seven lifts, erected on the Grand Western canal between See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington and See also:

• TIVERTON

Tiverton about 1835, consisted of two chambers with a masonry See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

pier between them . In each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended at either end of a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain hung over large pulleys above . As one caisson descended the other See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, and the apparatus was worked by putting about a ton more water in the descending caisson than in the ascending one . At Anderton a lift was erected in 1875 to connect the See also:

• WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- )

Weaver navigation with the Trent and Mersey canal, which at that point is 5o ft. higher than the river . The lift is a double one, and can See also:

• DEAL

deal with barges up to 100 tons .

The See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change is made while the vessels are floating in 5 ft. of water contained in a wrought iron caisson, 75 ft. long and 151 ft. wide . An hydraulic ram 3 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter supports each caisson, the bottom of which is strengthened so as to See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight to the side girders . The descending caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater depth of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240 tons) being otherwise See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant, since the barge displaces its awn weight of water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to over-come the Ioss of weight in the descending caisson when it begins to be immersed in the lower level of the river . The two presses in which the rams work are connected by a 5-in. See also:

• PIPE

pipe, so that the descent of one caisson effects the raising of the other . A similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the Neuffosse canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example on the Canal du Centre at La Louviere in Belgium has a rise of 5o ft., with caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons, the total weight lifted amounting to over r000 tons . This lift, with three others of the same character, overcomes the rise of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in the course of 41 M . Haulage.—The See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse or See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule walking along a tow-path and See also:

• DRAWING

drawing or " tracking " a boat or barge by means of a towing rope, still remains the typical method of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Animal conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on ship- Power canals vessels proceed under their own steam or are aided by tugs . Horse See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

traction is very slow . The maximum See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed on a narrow canal is about 32 M. an See also:

• HOUR

hour, and the See also:

• AVERAGE

average speed, which, of course, depends largely on the number of locks to be passed through, very much less . It has been calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls one narrow canal boat about 2 M. an hour loaded or 3 m. empty, or two narrow canal boats 11 m. loaded and 21m . Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and See also:

• CLYDE (Welsh, Clwyd, " far heard," " strong," the Glotta of Tacitus)
• CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863)

Clyde canal in 1802, when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by W . Symington See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew two barges for a distance of 191 m. in 6 hours in the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of a strong headwind .

As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed to employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the project See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell through owing to the See also:

• DEATH

death of the duke of See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge-water, and the See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors of the Forth and Clyde canal also decided against this method because they feared damage to the banks . Steam tugs are only practicable on navigations on which there are either no locks or they are large enough to admit the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at locks . On the Bridgewater canal, which has an average width of 50 ft. with a depth of 51 ft., is provided with vertical stone walls in place of sloping banks, and has no locks for its entire length of 40 M. except at See also:

• RUNCORN

Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey, tugs of 50 i. h. p., with a draught of 4 ft., tow four barges, each weighing 6o tons, at a See also:

• RATE

rate of nearly 3 M. an hour . On the See also:

• AIRE

Aire and See also:

• CALDER
• CALDER, SIR ROBERT

Calder navigation, where the locks have a minimum length of 215 ft., a large See also:

• COAL

coal traffic is carried in trains of boat-compartments on a system designed by W . H . See also:

• BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893)
• BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT

Bartholomew . The boats are nearly square in shape, except the leading one which has an ordinary See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow; they are coupled together by See also:

• KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for " bone," found in Ger. Knochen)

knuckle-See also:

• JOINTS

joints fitted into hollow stern-posts, so that they can move both laterally and vertically, and a wire rope in tension on each side enables the train to be steered . No boat crews are required, the See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew of the steamer regulating the train . If the number of boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but beyond that number they are towed . Each compartment ' carries 35 tons, and the total weight in a train varies from 700 to 900 tons . On the arrival of a train at See also:

• GOOLE

Goole the boats are detached and are taken over submerged cradles under hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle sufficiently high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers. j Another method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first tried on the Forth and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789, is to provide each vessel with a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate steam See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine, and many barges are now running fitted in this way . Experiments have also been made with See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion engines in place of steam engines .

In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a strong current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain passed round a See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam power and thus the tug is hauled up against the current .