See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, See also:

• LAT

Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)  , one of the most famous cities of antiquity, on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa; it was founded about 822 B.C. by the Phoenicians, destroyed for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans in 146 B.C., rebuilt by the Romans, and finally destroyed by the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs in A.D . 698 . It was situated in the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the Sinus Uticensis (mod . Gulf of See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis), which is protected on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west by the promontory of See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo (mod . See also:

• RAS

Ras See also:

• ALI

Ali el Mekki), and on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east by the promontory of See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

Mercury or Cape Bon (mod . Ras Addar) . Its position naturally formed a sort of See also:

• BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. bastire, to build)

bastion on the inner See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of the See also:

• BAY

bay between the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake of Tunis on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and the marshy See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of See also:

• UTICA

Utica (Sukhara) on the north . Cape Gamart, the Arab See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Sidi-bus Said and the small See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of See also:

• GOLETTA [LA GOULETTE]

Goletta (La Goulette, Halk el See also:

• WAD

Wad) See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a triangle which represents the See also:

• AREA

area of See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage at its greatest, including its extramural suburbs . Of this area the highest point is Sidi-bu-Said, which stands on a lofty cliff about 490 ft. high . On Cape Gamart (Kamart) was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery; the citadel, Byrsa, was on the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill on which to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day stand the See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent of See also:

• LES

Les Peres Blanes (See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Fathers) and the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral of St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis . The harbours See also:

• LAY

lay about three-fifths of a mile south of Byrsa, near the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital of the Khram, at Cartagenna . The See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of See also:

• LAND

land, which runs from the harbours as far as Goletta, to the mouth of the Catadas which connects the Lake of Tunis with the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, was known as See also:

• TAENIA (Gr. Tatyla, ribbon, fillet)

taenia (ribbon, See also:

• BAND

band) or ligula (diminutive of lingua, tongue) .

The See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus connecting the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Carthage with the mainland was roughly estimated by See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius as 25 stades (about 15,000 ft.); the peninsula itself, according to See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo, had a circumference of 36o stades (41 m.) . The distance between Gamart and Goletta is about 6 in . From Byrsa, which is only 195 ft. above the sea, there is a See also:

• FINE

fine view; thence it is possible to see how Carthage was able at once to dominate the sea and the gently undulating plains which stretch westward as far as Tunis and the See also:

• LINE

line of the See also:

• RIVER

river Bagradas (mod . Mejerda) . On the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon, on the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Gulf of Tunis, rise the chief heights of the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain which was the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of so many fierce struggles between Carthage and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, between Rome and the See also:

• VANDALS (Lat. Vandili or Vandilii)

Vandals:—the Bu-KornaIn (" Two-Horned Mountain "), crowned by the ruins of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• SATURN
• SATURN [SATURNUS]

Saturn Balcaranensis; See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel Ressas, behind which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the ruins of Neferis; Zaghwan, the highest point in Zengitana; Hammam-Lif, Rades (Ghades, Gades, the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Maxula) on the coast, and to m. to the south-west the " white " Tunis (XaKhc TGms of Diodorus) and the fertile hills of Ariana . All See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round Byrsa, alike on the plain and on the slopes, are See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, vineyards and patches of See also:

• CACTUS

cactus, interrupted only by huge heaps of rubbish and excavation-mounds, the haunts of See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green lizards, and by houses and villages built of materials See also:

• DRAWN

drawn for many a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century from the ancient ruins . The ancient harbours were distinguished as the military and the commercial . The remains of the latter are to be seen in a partially ruined artificial See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon which originally, according to Beule, had an area of nearly 6o acres; there were, however, in addition a large See also:

• QUAY
• QUAY, MATTHEW STANLEY (1833-1904)

quay for unloading See also:

• FREIGHT, (pronounced like " weight "; derived from the Dutch vracht or vrecht, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective= " laden ")

freight along the See also:

• SHORE

shore, and huge basins or See also:

• OUTER

outer harbours protected by jetties, the remains of which are still visible at the See also:

• WATER

water-level . The military harbour, known as Cothon, communicated with the commercial by means of a See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal now partially ruined; it was circular in shape, surrounded by large docks 164 ft. wide, and capable of holding 220 vessels, though its area was only some 22 acres . In the centre was an islet from which the See also:

• ADMIRAL

admiral could inspect the whole See also:

• FLEET

fleet.' Among the other ruins which have been identified are the See also:

• CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. Kipeos or Kptxot, a ring or' circle; probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin)

circus or See also:

• HIPPODROME (Gr. irrbSpo,uos, from irros, horse, and Spoµos, racecourse)

hippodrome, traversed by the railway at the north of the village of Duar-es-Shat; the See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

forum, between Cothon and Byrsa, where stood the See also:

• CURIA

Curia, the See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, and near which were the moneychangers' shops, the tribunal, the temple of Apollo, and in the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the See also:

• BATHS

baths of See also:

• THEODORA
• THEODORA (d. 1057)

Theodora . Three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main streets led from the forum to Byrsa . The hill of St Louis, the ancient citadel of Byrsa, has a See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of 4525 ft .

It appears to have been surrounded at least at certain points by several lines of fortifications . It was, however, dismantled by P . Scipio See also:

• AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS

Africanus the younger, in 146 B.C., and was only refortified by See also:

• THEODOSIUS

Theodosius II. in A.D . 424; subsequently its walls were again renewed by See also:

• BELISARIUS (c. 505–565)

Belisarius in 553 . On the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Byrsa have been found the most ancient of the Punic tombs, huge cisterns in the eastern See also:

• PART

part, and near the See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel of St Louis the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of the famous temple of Eshmun (see below), and the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman proconsul . About 325 ft. from the railway station of La Malga are the still imposing ruins of the See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre . Near by, at the spot called Bir el Jebana, Pere Delattre has discovered four cemeteries, one of which contains the tombs of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state officials or servants of the imperial See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . Rather more than See also:

• HALF

half a mile north-west of Byrsa are the huge cisterns of La Malga, which, at the time of the Arab geographer, See also:

• IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154]

Idrisi, still comprised twenty-four parallel covered reservoirs, 325 ft. by 712 ft.; of these fourteen only remain . ' The whole question of these harbours has been fully discussed by See also:

• CECIL

Cecil Torr, See also:

• OTTO

Otto Meltzer, R . Oilier, S . Gsell, M. de Roquefeuil; see Aug . Audollent, Carthage romaine, pp .

198 seq . ; Revue archeol .. 3rd See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . ; Jahrbiich f. class . ?hilologie, vols. cxlvii., cxlix.; also Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, vols. v., vii., viii . On the hill of the See also:

• PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART

Petit Seminaire, which is separated from Byrsa by a valley, Pere Delattre has discovered a See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• BASILICA

basilica, the baths of Gargilius, large See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves with several levels of tombs, and much debris of See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture, which, however, is insufficient to enable us to say that this is the site of the temple of Tanit or See also:

• JUNO

Juno Caelestis . The See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of Dermeche, near the sea, whose name recalls the Latin Thermis or Thermas, is remarkable for the imposing remains of the baths (thermae) of See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus . In one place called Douimes was the Ceramicus where excavation has discovered a graceful basilica, proto-Punic tombs, potters' ovens with numerous terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta moulds which were abandoned after the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege in 146 B.C., and finally a Roman palace with superb See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble statues . Farther on are huge reser- voirs of Borj-Jedid which are sufficiently well-preserved to be used again . Behind the small fort of Borj-Jedid is the plateau of the See also:

• ODEUM (Gr. Odeion)

Odeum where the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre and fine marble statues of the Roman period have been laid See also:

• BARE

bare; beyond is the See also:

• GREAT

great Christian basilica of Damus-el-Karita (perhaps a corruption of Domus Caritatis) ; in the direction of Sidi-bu-Said is the platea nova, the huge stairway of which, like so many other Carthaginian buildings, has of See also:

• LATE

late years been destroyed by the Arabs for use as See also:

• BUILDING

building material; on the coast near St Monica is the See also:

• NECROPOLIS

necropolis of Rabs where Delattre dug up fine anthropoid sarcophagi of the Punic period . In the quarter of See also:

• MEGARA

Megara (Magaria, mod . La Marsa) it would seem that there never were more than isolated buildings, villas in the midst of gardens .

At Jebel Khaui (Cape Kamart) there is a great necropolis, the sepulchral See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers of which were See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long ago rifled by Arabs and Vandals . This cemetery had a Jewish quarter . We must mention finally the gigantic remains in the western plain of the Roman See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct which carried water from Jebel Zaghwan (See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons Zeugitanus) and Juggar (Zucchara) to the cisterns of La Malga . From-the See also:

• NYMPHAEUM (Gr. vbµcbatov, vvµja"aov)

nymphaeum of Zaghwan to Carthage this aqueduct is 61 Roman See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles (about 56 See also:

• ENGLISH

English miles) long; in the plain of Manuba its See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches are nearly 49 ft. high . Though several famous travellers visited and described the ruins of Carthage during the first See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of the 19th century, such as See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major See also:

• HUMBERT, RANIERI CARLO EMANUELE GIOVANNI MARIA FERDINANDO EUGENIO, KING OF ITALY (1844-1900)

Humbert, See also:

• CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE, VICOMTE DE (1768–1848)

Chateaubriand, Estrup, no scientific investigations took place till 1833 In that See also:

• YEAR

year See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain Falbe, Danish See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul at Tunis, made a See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of the ruins so far as they were visible . In 1837 there was formed in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, on the initiative of Dureau de la Malle, a Societe pour les fouilles de Carthage; under the auspices of this See also:

• BODY

body Falbe and See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• GRENVILLE (or GRANVILLE), SIR RICHARD (r600-1658)
• GRENVILLE (or GREYNVILE), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591)
• GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770)
• GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1596-1643)
• GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE, BARON (1759-1834)

Grenville Temple undertook researches, and a little later Sir See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas Read, English consul, following the example of the Genoese and the Pisans, carried away to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England the mosaics, columns and statues of the baths of Antoninus . The See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe Bourgade, See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of St Louis erected in 1841, collected together Punic stelae and other antiquities from the surrounding plain; these formed the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the magnificent museum subsequently formed by Pere Delattre at the instigation of See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal See also:

• LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND (1825-1892)

Lavigerie . Between 1856 and 1858 Nathan See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis made excavations on the supposed site of the Odeum, and in 1859 Beule undertook his celebrated investigations on Byrsa . Among other explorers were A . Daux in 1866; von See also:

• MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON, BARON ZU WARTENBURG UND

Maltzan in 187o; E. de Sainte-See also:

• MARIE

Marie in 1874; Ch. d'Herisson in 1883; E . Babelon and S . See also:

• REINACH, JOSEPH (1856- )

Reinach in 1884; Vernaz in 1885; Gauckler in 1903 .

Of these the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority were sent officially by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French government . But their attempts were partial, disjointed and without any systematic plan; they were entirely superseded by the brilliant and persevering See also:

• WORK

work of R . P . Delattre . The Musee Lavigerie, the result of his labours, contains a vast archaeological treasure, the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of which is doubled by the fact that it stands in the very midst of the ancient site . Un- ' fortunately Delattre's work suffered too often from the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a cordial understanding with the See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors of the antiquities See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department, La Blanchere and P . Gauckler, who, having themselves undertaken excavations, transported their finds to the Bardo museum, by the help of the public funds at their disposal . The main authority for the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography and the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the excavations is Aug . Audollent's Carthage romaine (Paris, 1901) . A topographical and archaeological See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of the site was published under the direction of See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel Dolot and with the assistance of Delattre and Gauckler by the Ministere de 1'Instruction Publique in 1907 . History.—The history of Carthage falls into four periods: (1) from the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation to the beginning of the See also:

• WARS

wars with the Sicilian Greeks in 550 B.C.; (2) from 550 to 265, the first year of the Punic Wars; (3) the Punic Wars to the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C.,; (4) the periods of Roman and Byzantine See also:

• RULE

rule down to the destruction of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city by the Arabs in A.D . 698 .

(r) Foundation to 550 B.C.—from an extremely remote period Phoenician sailors had visited the See also:

• AFRICAN

African coast and had had commercial relations with the Libyan tribes who inhabited the See also:

• DISTRICT

district which forms the modern Tunis . In the 16th century B.C. the Sidonians already had trading stations on the coast; with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of competing with the Tyrian See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony at Utica they established a trading station called Cambe or Caccabe on the very site afterwards occupied by Carthage . Near Borj-Jedid unmistakable traces of this See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement have been found, though nothing is known of its history . According to the classical, tradition Carthage was founded about 85o B.C. by Tyrian emigrants led by Elissa or Elissar, the daughter of the Tyrian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Mutton; I., fleeing from the tyranny of her See also:

• BROTHER

brother See also:

• PYGMALION

Pygmalion . According to the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, Elissa subsequently received the name of See also:

• DIDO, or ELISSA

Dido i.e . "the fugitive." Cambe welcomed the new arrivals, who bought from the mixed Libyo-Phoenician peoples of the neighbourhood; tributaries of the, Libyan king Japon, a piece of land on which to build a "new city," Kart-hadshat, whence the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Roman forms of the name . The story goes that Dido, having obtained " as much land as could be contained by; the skin of an ox," proceeded to cut the skin of a slain ox into strips narrow enough to extend round the whole of the hill, which afterwards from this See also:

• EPISODE

episode gained the name of Byrsa . This last detail obviously arose from a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• PLAY

play on words by which Bbpva "hide," . " skin," is confused with the Phoenician bosra, borsa, " citadel," " fortress." In memory of its Tyrian origin, Carthage paid an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to the temple of Melkarth at See also:

• TYR

Tyr, and under the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire coins were struck showing Dido fleeing in a See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley, or presiding over the building of Byrsa . On the Vatican See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil there is a See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation in See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature of workmen shaping marble blocks and columns for Dido's palace . The early history of Carthage is very obscure . It is only in the 6th century that real history begins .

By this time the city is unquestionably a considerable See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital with a domain divided into the three districts of Zeugitana (the environs of Carthage and the peninsula of C . Bon), Byzacium (the shore of the Syrtes), and the third comprising the See also:

• EMPORIA

emporia which stretch in the form of a See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent to the centre of the Great Syrtis as far as Cyreiiaica . The first contest against the Greeks arose from a boundary question between the settlements of Carthage and those of the Greeks of See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

Cyrene . The limits were eventually fixed and marked by a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument known as the " See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

Altar of Philenae." The destruction of See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre by See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar (q.v.), in the first half of the 6th century, enabled Carthage to take its place as See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress of the Mediterranean . The Phoenician colonies founded by Tyre and See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, threatened by the Greeks; sought help from Carthage, and from this period See also:

• DATES

dates the Punic 1 supremacy in the western Mediterranean . The Greek colonization of Sicily was checked, while Carthage established herself on all the Sicilian coast and the neighbouring islands as far as the Balearic Islands and the coast of Spain . The inevitable conflict between See also:

• GREECE

Greece and Carthage See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out about 550 . (2) Wars with the Greeks.—In 550, the Carthaginians, led by the suffetes Malchus, conquered almost all Sicily and expelled the Greeks . In 536 they defeated the Phocaeans and the Massaliotes before Alalia on the Corsican coast . But See also:

• MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1834)

Malthus, having failed ' in See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia, was banished by the stern Carthaginian senate and swore to avenge himself . He laid siege to Carthage itself, and, after having sacrificed his son Carthalo to his lust for vengeance, entered the city as a See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

victor . He ruled until he was put to See also:

• DEATH

death by the party which had supported him .

See also:

• MAGO

Mago, son of See also:

• HANNO

Hanno, succeeded Malchus, as suffetes and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general-in-chief . He was the true founder of the Carthaginian military See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . He conquered Sardinia and the Balearic Islands, where he founded See also:

• PORT

Port Mahon (See also:

• PORTUS

Portus Magonis), and so increased the power of Carthage that he was able to force commercial See also:

• TREATIES

treaties upon the Etruscans, and the Greeks of both Sicily and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . The first agreement between Carthage and Rome was made in 509, 'one year after the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Tarquins, in the consulship of ' i.e . " of the Poeni (Phoenicians)." See also:

• JUNIUS
• JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, Francois du Jon)

Junius See also:

• BRUTUS (originally an adjective meaning " heavy," "stupid," kindred with Gr. aap(s, cf. Eng. " brute," " brutal")

Brutus and See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Horatius . The See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text is preserved by Polybius (Hist. iii . 22-23) . It assigned Italy to the Romans and the African See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters to Carthage, but See also:

• LEFT

left Sicily as a dangerous neutral See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone . Mago was succeeded as See also:

• COMMANDER

commander-in-chief by his See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder son See also:

• HASDRUBAL

Hasdrubal (c . 500), who was thrice chosen suffetes; he died in Sardinia about 485 . His brother Hamilcar, having collected a fleet of 200 galleys for the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Sicily, was defeated by the combined forces of See also:

• GELO

Gelo of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse and Theron of See also:

• AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'Arcpayas, mod. Girgenti (q.v.))

Agrigentum under the walls of See also:

• HIMERA

Himera in 48o, the year in which, the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian fleet was, defeated at See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis (some say the two battles were •simultaneous); it is said that 15o,000 Carthaginians were taken prisoners . The victory is celebrated by See also:

• PINDAR (Gr. HivSapos, c. 522–443 B.c.)

Pindar (Pyth. i.) .

These two leaders of, the powerful See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of the Barcidae each left three sons . Those of Hasdrubal were See also:

• HANNIBAL
• HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal ")

Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Sapho; those of Hamilcar, Himulco, See also:

• HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904)

Hanna and Gisco . All, under various titles, succeeded to the authority which it had already enjoyed . About 46o Hanno,a passing beyond the Pillars of See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules • (Straits of See also:

• GIBRALTAR

Gibraltar), founded settlements along the West African coast in the modern See also:

• SENEGAL

Senegal and See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea, and even in See also:

• MADEIRA
• MADEIRA, or THE MADE1RAS

Madeira and the See also:

• CANARY
• CANARY (Serinus canarius)

Canary Islands . In Sicily the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war lasted for a century with varying success . In 406 Hannibal and Himilco destroyed Agrigentum and threatened See also:

• GELA

Gela, but the Carthaginians were forced back on their strongholds in the south-west by See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius the Elder, Dionysius the Younger, See also:

• TIMOLEON (c. 411-337 B.C.)

Timoleon and See also:

• AGATHOCLES (361—289 B.C.)

Agathocles successively, whose cause was aided by a terrible See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

plague and See also:

• CIVIL

civil troubles in Carthage itself, A certain Hanno, unquestionably of the Barcide house, attempted to seize the supreme power, but his partisans were overwhelmed and he himself suffered the most cruel See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment . Profiting by these troubles, Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians at Crimissus in 340, and compelled them to See also:

• SUE, EUGENE [JosEPH MARIE] (1804—1857)

sue for See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . This peace was not of long duration; Agathocles crossed to Africa and besieged Carthage, which was then handicapped by the See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy of Bomilcar . Bomilcar was crucified, and Agathocles having been obliged to return to Sicily, his general Eumarcus was compelled to carry his See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army out of Africa, where it had maintained itself for three years (See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 310 to See also:

• OCTOBER

October 3o7), After the death of Agathocles, the Carthaginians re-established their supremacy in Sicily, and Mago even offered assistance to Rome against the invasion of See also:

• PYRRHUS (c. 318–272 B.C.)

Pyrrhus (,d$o) . Pyrrhus crossed to Sicily in 277, and was preparing to emulate Agathocles by sailing to Africa when he was compelled to return to Italy (see SICILY: History) . Delivered from these dangers and mote arrogant than before, Carthage claimed the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of Mediterranean waters, and seized every See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• SHIP

ship found between Sardinia and the Pillars of Hercules . " At Carthage," said Polybius, " no one is blamed, however he may have acquired his See also:

• WEALTH

wealth." The sailors took• the utmost care to conceal the routes which they followed; there is a story that a Carthaginian ship, pursued by a Roman galley as far as the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic, preferred to be driven out of her course and sunk rather than reveal the course to the See also:

• CASSITERIDES (from the Gr. Kavo-irepos, tin, i.e. " Tin-islands ")

Cassiterides, whither she was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound in quest of See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin .

The owner being saved, the senate made See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good his losses from the public See also:

• TREASURY

treasury (Strabo iii . 5' 11) . (3) Wars with Rome.3—The first Punic War lasted twenty-seven years (26S-241); it was fought by Carthage for the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of her Sicilian possessions and her supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea . The Romans, victorious at the See also:

• NAVAL

naval battles of Mylae (Melazzo) and Ecnornus (26o and 256), sent M . Atilius See also:

• REGULUS, MARCUS ATILIUS

Regulus with an army to Africa . But the Carthaginians, by the help of the Spartan Xanthippus, were successful, and Regulus was captured . The fighting was then transferred to Sicily, where Hasdrubal was defeated at Panormus (250); subsequently the Romans failed before Lilybaeum and were defeated at Drepanum, but their victory at the Aegates Islands ended the war (241) . a The See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of this Hanno with the son of Hamilcar is conjectural; see HANNo . LLFor the military side of these wars seePuaac WARS; HANNIBAL; HASDRLTBAL . Carthage now' desired to disband her forces, but the-mercenaries claimed their arrears of pay, and on being refused revolted under Spendius and Maths), pillaged the suburbs of Carthage and laid siege to the city itself . Only the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of Hamilcar See also:

• BARCA (mod. Merj)

Barca raised the siege; the mercenaries were caught in the,See also:

• DEFILE

defile of the See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

Axe, where they were cut down without See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy . This war, which all but ruined Carthage, is known to the Roman historians as the bellum inexpiabile .

This peril averted, Carthage undertook the conquest of Spain . It was the work of Hamilcar, and lasted nine years up to the day of Harnilcar's death, See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword in See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, in 228 . His sonsin-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, Hasdrubal Pulcher, built Carthagena in 227 and concluded with Rome a treaty by which the See also:

• EBRO (anc. Iberus or Hiberus)

Ebro was adopted as the boundary of the Carthaginian See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere . On his death the soldiers See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose for themselves as See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader Hannibal, son of Hamilcar . At this period Carthage, with a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of perhaps r,000,000, was in the enjoyment of extraordinary prosperity alike in its See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries and in its foreign See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . The manufacture of See also:

• WOVEN

woven goods, especially, was a flourishing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry; the Greek writer Polemo records a See also:

• SPECIAL

special treaty dealing with Carthaginian fabrics which were a recognized luxury throughout the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world . In Sicily, Italy and Greece the Carthaginians sold especially See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black slaves, See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, metals, See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious stones and all the products of Central Africa, which came thence by See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan . In Spain they sought See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper and See also:

• SILVER

silver, and it was by them that the modern mines of See also:

• HUELVA
• HUELVA (the ancient Onuba, Onoba, or Onuba Aestuaria)

Huelva, as also those of Osca and Carthagena, were first exploited . The district round Carthage, with its amazing fertility, was the granary of the city, as it was later that of Rome . Mago had drawn up a treaty dealing with See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and' rural See also:

• ECONOMY

economy generally, which was subsequently brought to Rome and translated into Latin by Decimus Silanus by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of the senate (J . P . See also:

• MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- )

Mahaffy, " The Work of Mago," in Ifermathena, xv. pp .

29-35) . In the midst of this prosperity the Second War with Rome broke out . At this time the genius of Carthage is incarnate in Hannibal; his See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns in Spain, Italy and Africa have won the admiration of military experts of all periods . The war became inevitable in 219 when Hannibal captured See also:

• SAGUNTUM

Saguntum, which was in See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with Rome . Passing through Spain and See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, Hannibal resolved to carry the war into the heart of Italy (218-217) . The battles of the Ticinus, See also:

• TREBIA (mod. Trebbia)

Trebia and See also:

• TRASIMENE, LAKE (Lat. Trasumeltus Lacus; Ital. Lago Trasimeno)

Trasimene Lake are but stages in the wonderful progress which culminated in the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• CANNAE (mod. Canne)

Cannae (August 2, 216) . The road to Rome was now open to him, but he did not profit by his See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, while the Carthaginian senate, to its shame, withheld all further support . His brother Hasdrubal with his relieving army was defeated at the Metaurus in 207; the Romans recovered their hold in Spain, and, seeing that Hannibal was unable to move in Italy, carried the war back to Africa . See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

Hearing that Scipio had taken Utica (203) and defeated Hasdrubal and Syphax, king of See also:

• NUMIDIA

Numidia, Hannibal returned from Italy, but with a hastily levied army was defeated at Zama (October a9; 202) . The subsequent 'peace was disastrous to Carthage, which lost its fleet and See also:

• ILL

ill See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save its African possessions . After the Second War Carthage soon revived . The population is said still to have numbered 700,000, and despite its humiliation, the city never ceased to inspire alarm at Rome .