See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and See also:

• PORT

Port. casta, lineage, See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast us, pure)  . There are not many forms of social organization on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale to which the name " See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste " has not been applied in a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good or in a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad sense . Its Portuguese origin simply suggests the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of See also:

• FAMILY

family; but before the word came to be extensively used in See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, it had been for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time identified with the Brahmanic See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of See also:

• HINDU

Hindu society into classes . The corresponding Hindu word is See also:

• VARNA

varna, or See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, and the words See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

gall, See also:

• KOLA

kola, gotra, pravara and karana are also used with different shades of meaning . Wherever, therefore, a writer has seen something which reminds him of any See also:

• PART

part of the extremely indeterminate notion, See also:

• INDIAN

Indian caste, he has used the word, without regard to any particular See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, See also:

• RACE

race, locality or set of social institutions . Thus Palgravel maintains that the colleges of operatives, which See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions prove to have existed in See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain during the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, were practically castes, because by the Theodosian See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code the son was compelled to follow the See also:

• FATHER

father's employment, and See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage into a family involved See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the family employment . But these collegia opificum seem to be just the forerunners of the voluntary associations for the regulation of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, the See also:

• FRITH (or FRYTH), JOHN (c. 1503-1533)
• FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1818-19og)

frith-See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds, and See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft-gilds of later times, in which, no doubt, sons had See also:

• GREAT

great advantages as apprentices, but which admitted qualified strangers, and for which intermarriage was a See also:

• MATTER

matter of social feeling . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of the formation of gilds shows, in fact, that they were really protests against the authoritative regulation of See also:

• LIFE

life from without and above . In the Saxon period, at any See also:

• RATE

rate, there was nothing resembling caste in the strict sense . " The ceorl who had thriven so well as to have five hides of See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a See also:

• THEGN, or THANE

thegn; his See also:

• WERGILD, WERGELD

wergild became 1200 shillings; the value of his See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath and the See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty of trespass against him increased in proportion; his descendants in the third See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation became gesithcund . Nor was the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the thriving defined; it might, so far as the terms of the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom went, be either See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase, or See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, or the See also:

• RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta, participle of recipere, to receive)

receipt of royal See also:

• BOUNTY (through O. Fr. bontet, from Lat. bonitas, goodness)

bounty . The successful See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant might also thrive to thegn-right .

The thegn himself might also rise to the rank, the estimation and status of an See also:

• EARL

earl." 2 It has been said that See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German history is, as regards this matter, in contrast with See also:

• ENGLISH

English, and that true castes are to be found in the military associations (Genossenschaften) which arose from the older class of Dienstmannen, and in which every member—See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page, See also:

• SQUIRE

squire or See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight—must prove his knightly descent; the Bauernstand, or rural non-military See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population; the Burgerstand, or merchant-class . The See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, was, however, never restricted 1 History of Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, i . 332 . 2 See also:

• STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-c. 161o)
• STUBBS [STUnnE], JOHN
• STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901)

Stubbs' Constitutional History of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, i. p . 162.by See also:

• BLOOD

blood relation . There is no doubt that at some time or other professions were in most countries hereditary . Thus Prescott3 tells us that in See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru, notwithstanding the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• RULE

rule that every See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man should make himself acquainted with the various arts, " there were certain individuals carefully trained to those occupations which See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister to the wants of the more opulent classes . These occupations, like every other calling and See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office in Peru, always descended from father to son . The division of castes was in this particular as precise as that which existed in Hindustan or See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt." Again, Zurita4 says that in See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico no one could carry on trade except by right of inheritance, or by public permission . The See also:

• FIJI
• FIJI (Viii)

Fiji carpenters See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate caste, and in the See also:

• TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook)

Tonga Islands all the trades, except See also:

• TATTOO

tattoo-markers, barbers and See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club-carvers are hereditary,—the separate classes being named matabooles, mooas and tooas . Nothing is more natural than that a father should See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach his son his handicraft, especially if there be no organized See also:

• SYSTEM

system of public instruction; it gives the father help at a cheap rate, it is the easiest introduction to life for the son, and the custom or reputation of the father as a craftsman is often the most important See also:

• LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

legacy he has to leave . The value of transmitted skill in the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple crafts was very great; and what was once universal in communities still survives in outlying portions of communities which have not been brought within the general See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange .

But so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as this See also:

• PROCESS

process remains natural, there can be no question of caste, which implies that the adoption of a new profession is not merely unusual, but wrong and punishable . Then, the word caste has been applied to sacred corporations . A family or a tribe is consecrated to the service of a particular See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar, or all the altars of a particular See also:

• GOD

god . Or a semi-sacred class, such as the Brehons or the Bards, is formed, and these, and perhaps some specially dignified professions, become hereditary, the others remaining See also:

• FREE

free . Thus in Peru, the priests of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

Sun at See also:

• CUZCO

Cuzco transmitted their office to their sons; so did the Quipu-camayocs, or public registrars, and the amantas and haravecs, the learned men and singers.5 In many countries See also:

• POLITICAL

political considerations, or distinctions of race, have prevented intermarriage between classes . Take, for example, the See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians and the plebeians at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, or the EIraprcarai, AhKwves or 'Irepioucoc, and the Mores at See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta . In See also:

• GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA)
• GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. " New Guatemala," sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala)

Guatemala it was the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law that if any See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble married a plebeian woman he should be degraded to the caste of mazequal, or plebeian, and be subject to the duties and services imposed on that class, and that the bulk of his See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate should be sequestered to the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king.6 In See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar marriage is strictly forbidden between the four classes of Nobles, Hovas, Zarahovas and Andevos,—the lowest of whom, however, are apparently See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere slaves . In a sense See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery might be called the lowest of castes, because in most of its forms it does permit some small customary rights to the slave . In a sense, too, the survival in European See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty of the idea of " equality of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth " (Ebenbiirtigkeit) is that of a caste conception, and the marriage of one of the members of a European royal family with a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person not of royal blood might be described as an infraction of caste rule . Caste in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India is a question of more than See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• INTEREST

interest . It is the great obstacle to See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government in accordance with modern 3 History of Peru, i . 143 .

' Rapport sur See also:

• LES

les differentes classes de chefs clans la nouvelle Espagne (1840), p . 223 . 5 Something like this is to be found in the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian notion of See also:

• CHIN

chin, or status according to See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of ranks, as modified by the custom of myestnichestvo, by which no one entering the public service could be placed beneath a person who had been subject to his father's orders . Hereditary See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility at one time belonged to every servant, military or See also:

• CIVIL

civil, above a certain rank, and a family remaining out of office for two generations lost its rights of nobility; but in 1884 the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege was confined to See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army colonels and See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state councillors of the 4th class . At one time, therefore, the razryadniya knighi, or See also:

• SPECIAL

special registers, superseded by See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great's barkhatnaya kniga, or See also:

• VELVET

Velvet See also:

• BOOK

Book, contained a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete code of social privilege and See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence . Peter's " tabel o rangakh" contained fourteen classes . The subject is treated of in the 1600 articles of the ninth See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the Russian Code Svod Zakonov . The Russian Nobility, though deprived of their exemptions from See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription, See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation and See also:

• CORPORAL

corporal See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment, still retain many advantages in the public service . a Juarros, His'. of Guatemala, Tr . (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1823) . ideas, and to the See also:

• WORK

work of native religious reformers as well as of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian missionaries . By some writers caste has been regarded as the great safeguard of social tranquillity, and therefore as the indispensable See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the progress in certain arts and See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries which the See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus have made .

Others, such as See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill, have denounced it as fatal to the principle of free competition and opposed to individual happiness . The latter view assumes a state of facts which was denied by See also:

• COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837)

Colebrooke, one of the highest authorities on Indian matters . See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

Writing in 1798 he says,' after pointing out that any person unable to See also:

• EARN

earn a subsistence by the exercise of his profession may follow the trade of a See also:

• LOWER

lower caste or even of a higher: " Daily observation shows even Brahmans exercising the See also:

• MENIAL

menial profession of a Sudra . We are aware that every caste forms itself into clubs or lodges, consisting of the several individuals of that caste residing within a small distance, and that these clubs or lodges govern themselves by particular rules or customs or by-See also:

• LAWS

laws . But though some restrictions and limitations, not founded on religious prejudices, are found among their by-laws, it may be received as a general See also:

• MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (184o- )

maxim that the occupation appointed for each tribe is entitled merely to a preference . Every profession, with few exceptions, is open to every description of persons; and the discouragement arising from religious prejudices is not greater than what exists in Great Britain from the effects of municipal and See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation laws . In See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of See also:

• PEOPLE

people actually willing to apply to any particular occupation are sufficient for the unlimited See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of any manufacture." This was corroborated by See also:

• ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART (1779-1859)
• ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM (1431-1514)

Elphinstone,2 who states that, during a long experience of India, he never heard of a single See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of degradation from caste; and it is illustrated by the experience of the Indian army, in which men of all castes unite.3 The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary notion of modern caste is that it involves certain restrictions on marriage, on profession, and on social intercourse, especially that implied in eating and drinking together . How far intermarriage is permitted, what are the effects of a marriage permitted but looked on as irregular, what are the penalties of a marriage forbidden, whether the rules protecting trades and occupations are in effect more than a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of unionism grown inveterate through custom, by what means caste is lost, and in what circumstances it may be regained,—these are questions on which very little real or definite knowledge exists . See also:

• SIR

Sir H . Risley regards the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of mixed marriages as now the essential and most prominent characteristic . It is very remark-able that the Vedas, on which the whole structure of Brahmanic faith and morals professes to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, give no countenance to the later regulations of caste . The only passage bearing on the subject is in the Purusha Sukta, the 9oth Hymn of the loth Book of the Rigveda Samhita .

" When they divided man, how many did they make him ? What was his mouth? what his arms? what are called his thighs and feet ? The See also:

• BRAHMANA

Brahmana was his mouth, the Raganya was made his arms, the Vaisya became his thighs, the Sudra was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born from his feet." See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• HAUG, MARTIN (1827–1876)

Haug finds in this a subtle See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory that the Brahmans were teachers, the Kshatriyas the warriors of mankind . But this is opposed to the simple and See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the Vedic See also:

• HYMNS

hymns, and to the fact that in the accounts of creation there the origin of many things besides classes of men is attributed in the same fanciful manner to parts of the divine person . It is in the Puranas and the Laws of Manu, neither of which claims direct See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration, where they ' Life and Essays of H . T . Colebrooke, i. p . 104 . 2 History of India . "The cruclities and cruelties of the caste system need not See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind us to its other aspects . There is no doubt that it is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main cause of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of politics and the cataclysms of Nature . It provides every man with his See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, his career, his occupation, his circle of See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends .

It makes him, at the outset, a member of a corporate See also:

• BODY

body: it protects him through life from the canker of social See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations; it ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in like case with himself . The caste organization is to the Hindu his club, his trade See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union, his benefit society, his philanthropic society . An Indian without caste, as things stand at See also:

• PRESENT

present, is not quite easy to imagine." (See also:

• SIDNEY
• SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683)
• SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1529-1586)
• SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586)

Sidney See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low, See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

Vision of India, 1906, ch. xv. p . 263).465 differ from the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the Veda, that the texts are to be found on which all that is objectionable in caste has been based . Even in the See also:

• VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root vish, "to work ")

Vishnu Purana, however, the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of caste speaks of the four classes as being at first " perfectly inclined to conduct springing from religious faith." It is not till after the whole human race has fallen into See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin that separate social duties are assigned to the classes . The same hymn speaks of the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of qualities of Brahma . Sattva, or goodness, sprang from the mouth of Brahma; Rajas, or See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion, came from his See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast; Tamas, or darkness, from his thighs; others he created from his feet . For each one of these gunas, Or See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of quality, a thousand couples, male and See also:

• FEMALE

female, have been created, to which the distinct heavens, or places of perfection of Prajapati, See also:

• INDRA

Indra, Maruts and Gandharvas are assigned . To the gunas are related the yugas, or ages: 1st, the Krita, or glorious age of truth and piety, in which apparently no distinctions, at least no grades of excellence were known; and, the Treta, or period of knowledge; 3rd, the Dvapara, or period of See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice; 4th, the See also:

• KALI (black)

Kali, or period of darkness . See also:

• BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-186o,)
• BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM VON (1811-1899)

Bunsen supposes there may be an historical See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the legend that Pururava, a great conqueror of the Treta age, founded caste . The yugas are hardly periods of historical See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, but there is no doubt that the Vayu Purana assigns the definite origin of caste to the Treta period . " The perfect beings of the first age, some tranquil, some fiery, some active and some distressed, were again born in the Treta, as Brahmans, &c., governed by the good and bad actions per-formed in former births." The same hymn proceeds to explain that the first arrangement did not work well, and that a second was made, by which force, criminal See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war were declared to be the business of the Kshatriyas; officiating at sacrifices, sacred study and the receipt of presents to belong to the Brahmans; See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture to the Vaisyas; the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical arts and service to the Sudras .

The Ramayana hymn suggests that in the four great periods the castes successively arrive at the state of dharma or righteousness . Thus, a Sudra cannot, even by the most rigorous self-See also:

• MORTIFICATION

mortification, become righteous in the period proper to the salvation of the Vaisyas . As the hymn speaks in the Dvapara age, it speaks of the salvation of Sudras as future, and not yet possible . Wholly in opposition to the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of a fourfold birth from Brahma is the legend that the castes sprang from Manu himself, who is removed by several generations of gods and demi-gods from Brahma . Then, again, the Santiparvan alleges that the See also:

• WORLD

world, at first entirely Brahmanic, was separated into castes merely by the evil See also:

• WORKS

works of man . Castehood consists in the exercise of certain virtues or vices . Munis, or persons born indiscriminately, frequently rise to the caste of Brahmans, and the offspring of Brahmans sink to a lower level . The See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent observes: " If a man is regarded by you as being a See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman only in consequence of his conduct, then birth is vain, until See also:

• ACTION

action is shown." But this See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of caste takes place only through a second, birth, and not during the life which is spent in virtue . Another poetical conception of caste birth is expressed in the Harivamsa . The Brahmans were formed from an imperishable element (Akshara), the Kshatriyas from a perishable element (Kshara), the Vaisyas from alteration, and the, Sudras from a modification of See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke . The general result of the foregoing texts is that several contra- dictory accounts have been given of the origin of caste, and that these are for the most part unintelligible . Caste is described as a See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• EPISODE

episode in creation, and as born from different parts of different gods, from the mortal Manu, from abstract principles, and from non-entity .

It is also described as coeval with creation, as existing in perfection during the Krita period, and subsequently falling into sin . It is also said that only Brahmans existed at first, the others only at later periods . Then the rationalistic theories of the Santiparvan upse*. the very See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of caste,viz. hereditary transmission of the caste character.' It seems clear that when the Vedas were composed, many persons who were not Brahmans acted as priests, and See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, the " preceptors of gods," by their " austere fervour," rose from a lower rank to the dignity of Brahmanhood . Originally, indeed, See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the gods by See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer " See also:

• MUIR, JOHN (1810-1882)
• MUIR, SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905)

Muir's See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit Texts, vol. i . (1868) . 466 and sacrifice was open to all classes of the community . As the Brahmans grow in political importance, they make See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion an exclusive and sacred business . We find them deciding questions of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to the See also:

• THRONE

throne, and enforcing their decisions . While in the earlier literature there are several instances of Brahmans receiving instruction from the hands of Kshatriyas, in the Puranas and Manu See also:

• DEATH

death is made to overtake Kshatriyas who are not submissive to the Brahmans; and in one case Visvamitra, the son of Gadhi, actually obtains Brahmanhood as a See also:

• REWARD

reward for his submission . It seems certain that many of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient myths were expressly manufactured by the Brahmans to show their superiority in birth and in the favour of See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

Heaven to the Kshatriyas —a poetical effect which is sometimes spoiled by their claiming descent from their rivals . This brings us to a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the theories which have been started to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of Brahmanic caste, as it is stereotyped in the Laws of Manu . James Mill, who invariably underestimated the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on history of " previous states of society," suggested that the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original division must have been the work of some inspired individual, a legislator or a social reformer, who perceived the advantages which would result from a systematic division of labour .

The subordination of castes he accounts for by the superstitious terror and the designing lust of See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power which have so frequently been invoked to explain the natural supremacy of the religious class . Because the ravages of war were dreaded most after the calamities sent by heaven, he finds that the military class properly occupy the second place . This arrangement he apparently contemplates as at no time either necessary or wholesome, and as finally destroyed by the selfish jealousies of caste, and by the degradations which the multiplication of trades made inevitable . Heeren1 and See also:

• KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835)
• KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817)

Klaproth have contended that the division into castes is founded on an original diversity of race, and that the higher castes are possessed of See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior beauty . The clear complexion and See also:

• REGULAR

regular features of the Brahmans are said to distinguish them as completely from the Sudras as the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish Creoles were distinguished from the Peruvians . " The high forehead, stout build, and See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper colour of the Brahmins and other castes allied to them, appear in strong contrast with the somewhat low and wide heads, slight make, and dark See also:

• BRONZE

bronze of the low castes" (See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson, quoted by Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Chips, ii. p . 327).2 This explanation is, however, generally conjoined with that founded on the tradition of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest by the higher castes . There is no doubt that the three castes of lighter colour (traivarnika), the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white Brahmans, the red Kshatriyas, the yellow Vaisyas, are, at least in the early hymns and Brahmanas, spoken of as the Aryas, the Sanskrit-speaking conquerors, in contradistinction to the dark See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of the Turanian See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines Dasyus . In fact arya, which means noble, is derived from arya, which means householder, and was the original name of the largest caste, now called Vaisyas . The great Sanscrit See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar, See also:

• RUDOLF (otherwise known as Basso NOROK and Gannon)

Rudolf von See also:

• ROTH, JUSTUS LUDWIG ADOLF (1818-1892)

Roth (1821-1895), in his Brahma and See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die Brahmanan3 held that the Vedic people advanced from their See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab, drove the aborigines into the hills, and took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country lying between the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges, the See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna and the See also:

• VINDHYA

Vindhya range . " In this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of complication and disturbance," he said, " power naturally See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the hands of those who did not possess any direct authority," i.e. the domestic priests of the numerous tribal See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings . The Sudras he regarded as a conquered race, perhaps a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan stock, which immigrated at an earlier period into India, perhaps an autochthonous 1 Ideen, i .

61o . The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the later history of India . The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by the Mussulmans, the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, the Afghans . There was an See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy of colour under the See also:

• MOGUL, MOCHAL, or MIGHAL

Mogul See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty . But under an Indian See also:

• CLIMATE

climate it could not last many generations . The Brahmans of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern India were as See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be descended from Brahmans . According to Manu the Chandala must not dwell within See also:

• TOWN

town; his See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• WEALTH

wealth must be See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs and asses; his clothes must consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes must be broken pots . Surely this vituperative description must apply to an aboriginal race . 3 Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, See also:

• BAND

Band i . (quoted by Muir, ubi supra) . Indian tribe . The latter See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis is opposed to the fact that, while the Sudra is debarred from sharing three important Vedic sacrifices, the Bhagasata Purana expressly permits him to sacrifice " without mantras," and imposes on him duties with reference to Brahmans and cows which one would not expect in the case of a nation See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange in blood .

But unless a previous subordination of castes among the conquering race be supposed, it seems difficult to see why the See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior-class, who having contributed most to the conquest must have been masters of the situation, should have consented to degradation below the class of Brahmans . The position of the Sudra certainly suggests conquest . But are there See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound historical reasons for supposing that Brahmans and Sudras belonged to different nations, or that either class was confined to one nation ? The hypothesis was held in a somewhat modified form by Meiners,` who supposed that instead of one conquest there may have been two successive immigrations,—the first immigrants being subdued by the second, and then forming an intermediate class between their conquerors and the aborigines; or, if there were no aborigines, the mixture of the two immigrant races would form an intermediate class . In the same way Talboys See also:

• WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906)
• WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887)

Wheeler 5 suggested that the Sudra may be the original conquerors of the race now represented by the Pariahs . Most of these explanations seem rather to describe the mode in which the existing institutions of caste might be transplanted from one land to another; from a motherland to its colonies, and altered by its new conditions . Military conquest, though it often introduces See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude, does not naturally See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of the priesthood . It is unscientific to assume large historical events, or large ethnological facts, or the existence of some creator of social See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order.6 As See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

Constant' points out, caste rests on the religious idea of an indelible stain resting on certain men, and the social idea of certain functions being committed to certain classes . The idea of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical purity was largely See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed under the See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic legislation; in fact the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal regulations of the See also:

• ESSENES

Essenes (who were divided into four classes) resemble the frivolous prohibitions of See also:

• BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism . As the daily intercourse of men in trade and industry presents numberless occasions on which the stain of real or fancied impurity might be caught, the power of the religious class who define the rules of purity and the penalties of their violation becomes very great . Moreover, the Hindus are deeply religious, and therefore naturally prepared for Purohiti or See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest-rule . They were also passionately attached to their See also:

• NATIONAL

national hymns, some of which had led them to victory, while others were associated with the benign influences of nature .

Only the priest could See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

chant or teach these hymns, and it was believed that the smallest See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake in See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation would draw down the anger of the gods . But however favourable the conditions of spiritual dominion might be, it seems to have been by no more natural process than hard fighting that the Brahmans finally asserted their supremacy . We are told that Parasurama, the great See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of the Brahmans, " cleared the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth thrice seven times of the Kshatriya caste, and filled with their blood the five large lakes of Samauta." Wheeler thinks that the substitution of blood-sacrifices for offerings of parched See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, clarified See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter and See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

soma See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine marks an See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation by the Brahmans of the great military banquets to the purposes of political supremacy . It is not, therefore, till the Brahmanic period of Indian history, which ends with the coming of Sakya Muni, in 600 B.C., that we find the caste-See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions of Manu realized as facts . These are —" To Brahmans he (i.e . Brahma) assigned the duties of See also:

• READING

reading 4 De Origine Castarum (See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen) . 6 History of India, vol. i . (1867-1871) . 6 For a characteristic appreciation of caste see See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte, Cours de philosophie See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive, vi. c . 8 . He regards the hereditary transmission of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a necessary and universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by war and colonization . The morality of caste was, he contends, an improvement on what preceded; but its permanence was impossible, because " the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human progress." The seclusion of See also:

• WOMEN

women and the preservation of See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial inventions were features of caste; and the higher priests were also magistrates, philosophers, artists, See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers, and physicians .

6 De la religion, ii . 8 . the Vedas, of teaching, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving See also:

• ALMS

alms if they be See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (149