See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

CASUISTRY (from the See also:

• LAT

Lat. casus, a point of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law)  , the See also:

• ART

art of bringing See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general moral principles to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear on particular actions . It is, in See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, applied morality; anybody is a casuist who reflects about his duties and tries to bring them into See also:

• LINE

line with some intelligible moral See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard . But morality at different times has worn very different dresses . It has sometimes been thought of as an outward See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, sometimes as an inward disposition; and each of these See also:

• RIVAL

rival conceptions has See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a casuistical method of its own . Believers in law have put their See also:

• TRUST

trust in authority or See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic; while believers in disposition chiefly look to our instinctive faculties—See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, See also:

• COMMON

common-sense or sentiment . The legal is the older See also:

• GROUP

group, and to it the name of casuist is often exclusively reserved, generally with the implication that its methods are too purely technical to commend themselves to mankind at large . But common-sense and See also:

• CON

con-See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science are quite as definite guides as logic or authority; and there seems no See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for refusing to give the name of See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

casuistry to their operations . The casuistry of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is uncompromisingly legal . His morality is not yet separated from his See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion; and religion for him means the cult of some See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior being—the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king or See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest of his tribe—whose See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person is charged with a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of sacred See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity . " His divinity is a See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire,which,under proper restraints, confers endless blessings; but if rashly touched, or allowed to break See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds, it See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns or destroys what it touches . Hence the disastrous effects supposed to follow a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of See also:

• TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)

taboo; the offender has thrust his See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand into the divine fire, which shrivels up and consumes him on the spot " (Frazer, The See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Bough, i . 169) .

Elaborate rules are accordingly See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up to secure the maximum of benefit, and the minimum of inconvenience, from this sacred fire; and in the application of these rules does See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage casuistry consist . At a higher See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization the See also:

• GOD

god is no longer See also:

• PRESENT

present in person but issues to his worshippers categorical commands . These logic must seize upon and develop as far as they will go; for the breach of some trifling consequence of a See also:

• RULE

rule might mean the loss of the deity's favour . Hence the rise of sacred books among most Eastern peoples . On the Jewish See also:

• DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. 7] SercaXoyos, sc. (3i(3)tos or vopoGevia)

Decalogue, for instance, follows the law, and on the law the rabbinical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools . Some of these will be stricter, and some laxer; but on the whole all tend to " aggravate " the law—down to the point of forbidding the faithful to See also:

• WEAR

wear a See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle, or to kill a noxious See also:

• INSECT

insect on the See also:

• SABBATH

Sabbath . Though indeed we might look nearer See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home than the See also:

• TALMUD

Talmud for similar absurdities; most Puritan communities could furnish See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange freaks of Sabbatarian casuistry . Nor have the Catholics been one whit behind them . Their scholastic doctors gravely discuss whether—since See also:

• WATER

water is the " See also:

• MATTER

matter " of See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism—a soul can be made regenerate by See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, or See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose-water or See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine . At the opposite See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole stood See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• GREECE

Greece . Here ceremonial 48 6 casuistry found no See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, because there were no sacred books . " Among the Greeks See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing never attained the See also:

• CONSECRATION (Lat. consecrallo, from con and sacrare, " to make sacred ")

consecration of religion .

No See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and observance, no manuals containing authoritative rules of morality, were ever transmitted in documentary See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . In conduct they shrank from formulae . Unvarying rules petrified See also:

• ACTION

action; the need of flexibility, of perpetual See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment, was strongly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt" (See also:

• BUTCHER

Butcher, The See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

Genius, p . 182) . For this reason their See also:

• INTEREST

interest in ethical speculations was all the keener; their See also:

• GREAT

great thinkers were endlessly engaged in settling what the relation ought to be between See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty and self-interest . Ought one to See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow up the other—and, if so, which should prevail ? Or was it possible to patch up a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise between them ? The great Stoic philosophers took the austerest line, and held that duty should always and everywhere be our only law . But it was one thing to enunciate such magnificent theories in a lecture, and quite another to apply them in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-place . Casuistry came to the aid of See also:

• AVERAGE

average human nature—that is to say, pupils began to confront the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master with hard cases taken from daily See also:

• LIFE

life . And more than one master was disposed to make large—even startlingly large—concessions to the exigencies of practice . This See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of moral See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy came specially into See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence when Stoicism was transplanted to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome .

See also:

• CICERO

Cicero's De Officiis abounds in the kind of question afterwards so warmly discussed by Dr See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson and his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends . Is it ever right to tell a See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie ? May a lawyer defend a client whom he knows to be guilty ? In selling my goods, is it enough not to disguise their shortcomings, or ought I candidly to admit them ? See also:

• SENECA

Seneca even made the discussion of such problems into a See also:

• REGULAR

regular discipline, claiming that their concrete See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character gave an interest in morality to those who had no love for abstractions; while they prevented those who had from losing. themselves in the clouds . And M . Thamin maintains that, if his heroes did not form great characters, at any See also:

• RATE

rate they taught the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child to See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train its conscience . But, then, Cicero and Seneca took common-sense as their See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide . They decided each problem on its merits, looking more to the spirit than to the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter, and often showing a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical sagacity worthy of Johnson himself . Quite in the great See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor's spirit is Cicero's counsel to his son, to hear what the philosophers had to say, but to decide for himself as a man of the See also:

• WORLD

world . Such See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice could not be grateful to the philosophers themselves—then a definite professional class, not unlike the " spiritual' See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors " of a later Rome, who earned their See also:

• BREAD

bread by smoothing away the doubts of the scrupulous on all matters intellectual and moral . Their great weapon was their logic; and a logician, as See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal says, must be very unfortunate or very stupid if he cannot See also:

• MANAGE

manage to find exceptions to every conceivable rule .

In their hands casuistry became the art of finding such exceptions . From the Greek See also:

• SOPHISTS (from Gr. codtoris, literally, man of wisdom)

sophists they borrowed ingenious ways of playing off one duty against another, or duty in general against self-interest—leaving the doubter in the alternative of neglecting the one and being a See also:

• KNAVE (O.E. cnafa, cognate with Ger. Knabe, boy)

knave, or neglecting the other and being a See also:

• FOOL (O. Fr. fol, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin use of follis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester, a wind-bag)

fool . Or else they raised a subtle distinction between the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act and the intention . To get drunk for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of the drink was the See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of a beast; but wine was a powerful stimulant to the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain, and to fuddle oneself in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to think great thoughts was worthy of a See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage . No doubt these See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

airy paradoxes were not always seriously taken; but it is significant that a common Roman See also:

• PROVERB (Lat. proverbium, from pro, forth, publicly, verbum, word; the Greek equivalent is irapolµia, from 7rapa, alongside, and oiµos, way, road, i.e. a wayside saying; Ger. Sprichwort)

proverb identified " philosophizing " (philosophatur) with thinking out some dirty See also:

• TRICK

trick . See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity swept the whole discussion on to a higher See also:

• PLANE

plane . All the stress now See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell on the disposition, not on the outward act . The good deeds of a just man were a natural consequence of his See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice; whereas a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad man was no whit the better, because he now and then deviated into doing right . Actions, in short, were of no See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account whatever, apart from the character that produced them . " All things are lawful unto me," said St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul,, but all are not expedient." And St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine sums the whole matter up in the famous phrase: " Have charity, and do as See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou wilt." Narrow-minded See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian consciences, however, could not stay See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long on this level; law was so very much more satisfying a guide than vague, elusive charity . And law inplenty was forthcoming, so soon as the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church developed the discipline of public confessions followed by appropriate penances for each See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault . At first the whole proceeding was informal and impulsive enough; but by the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century it had grown thoroughly stereotyped and formal .

Libri Poenitentiales began to appear—detailed lists of all possible sins, with the forfeit to be exacted from each . As public See also:

• PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence)

penance finally decayed, and auricular See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

confession took its place, these were superseded by the Summae de Poenilentia,—law-books in the strictest sense . These were huge digests of all that popes, See also:

• COUNCILS

councils, primitive fathers had decided on every kind of question pertaining to the See also:

• CONFESSIONAL (Late Lat. confessionale, neut. adj. from confessionalis, " pertaining to confession," Fr. confessional, Ital. confessionale)

confessional—what exactly is a See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin, what kind of questions the priests must ask, under what conditions he could give See also:

• ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from absolvo, loosen, acquit)

absolution . As such, they were eagerly welcomed by the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy; for a single See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate, sitting in See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret without See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, necessarily grasps at whatever will lighten his See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of responsibility . Nor was their complexity a stumbling-See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block . The See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval mind was only too prone to look on morality as a highly technical art, quite as difficult as See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine or See also:

• CHANCERY

chancery law—a path where wayfaring men were certain to err, with no guide but their unsophisticated conscience . What could they possibly do but cling to their priest with a "See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind and unexpressed faith" ? Against this See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of things the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation was a violent protest . Catholicism increasingly took for granted that a man imperilled his soul by thinking for himself; Protestantism replied that he could certainly lose it, if he See also:

• LEFT

left his thinking to another . For it is to the individual conscience that God speaks; through the struggles of the individual conscience He builds up a strong and See also:

• STABLE

stable Christian character " A man may be a heretic in the truth," says See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

Milton in his Areopagitica (1644), " if he believes things only because his pastor says so, or the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

Assembly so determines, without knowing other reason, though his belief be true, yet the very truth he holds becomes his See also:

• HERESY

heresy . There is not any burden that some would not gladlier See also:

• POST

post off to another than the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge and care of their religion . A wealthy man, addicted to his pleasures and his profits, finds religion to be a See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic so entangled, and of so many piddling accounts, that of all mysteries he cannot skill to keep a stock going upon that See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade .

What does he therefore but resolve to give over toiling, and find himself some See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor, to whose care and conduct he may commit the whole managing of his religious affairs—some divine of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note and estimation that must be . To him he adheres, resigns the whole warehouse of his religion with all the locks and keys into his custody, and indeed makes the very person of that man his religion . So that a man may say his religion is now no more within himself, but is become a dividual moveable, which goes or comes near him, according as that good man frequents the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . " Twelve years after the Areopagitica appeared Pascal's Provincial Letters (1656–1657) . These See also:

• DEAL

deal with the casuists of the See also:

• COUNTER

Counter–Reformation in the spirit of Milton, laying especial stress on the artificiality of their methods and the laxity of their results . Not, of course, that they meant deliberate evil; Pascal expressly credits them with good intentions . But they were drawn, almost to a man, from See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy or See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, the two countries least alive to the spirit of the Reformation; and most of them were See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits, the order that set out to be nothing Protestantism was, and everything that Protestantism was not . Hence they were resolutely opposed to any See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of reform; for to begin making changes in the Church's system would be a tacit See also:

• ADMISSION

admission that See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther had some show of reason on his side . On the other hand, they would certainly lose their hold on the laity, unless some kind of See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change were made; for many of the Church's rules were obsolete, and others far too severe to impose on the See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France of See also:

• MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE (1533-1592)

Montaigne or even the Spain of Cervantes . Thus caught between two fires the casuists developed a highly ingenious method, not unlike that of the Roman See also:

• STOICS

Stoics, for eviscerating the substance of a rule while leaving its See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow carefully intact . The next step was to force the confessors to accept their lax See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the law; and this was accomplished by their famous theory of See also:

• PROBABILISM (from Lat. probare, to test, approve)

probabilism—first taught in Spain about 1580 . This made it a See also:

• GRAVE

grave sin in the priest to refuse absolution, whenever there was some good reason for giving it even when there were other and better reasons for refusing it .

This principle does not deserve all the abuse that has been lavished upon it . It secured uniformity in the confessional, and thereby protected the penitent from the caprices of individual priests; and by depriving these of responsibility, it forced the penitent back on himself . But the gain was more than counterbalanced by the evil . The less the Church could expect from its penitents, the more it was driven to trust to the miraculous efficiency of sacra-See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace . Once get a sinner to confession, and the whole See also:

• WORK

work was done . However bad his natural disposition, the magical words of absolution would make him a new man . As for most penitents, all they cared for was to scrape through by the skin of their See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth . Casuistry might insist that it only proposed to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the minimum of a minimum, and beg them for their soul's sake to aim a little higher . Human nature seldom resists the charms of a fixed standard—least of all when it is applied by a live See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge in a visible See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court . If the priest must be satisfied with little, why be at the trouble of offering more ? For this reason, probabilism found vigorous opponents in See also:

• BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704)

Bossuet and other eminent divines; and various of its excesses were condemned by the popes during the latter See also:

• HALF

half of the 17th century . After a long See also:

• ECLIPSE (Gr. €uheo,tis, falling out of place, failing)

eclipse it was finally re-established, though in a very modified form, by Alfonso See also:

• LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787)

Liguori about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 18th century .

In See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant countries casuistry shrank and dwindled, though See also:

• WORKS

works on the subject continued to be written both in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England during the 17th century . The best known of the See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican books is See also:

• JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

Jeremy See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor's Ductor Dubitantium (1660) . But the Protestant casuist never pretended to speak authoritatively; all he did was to give his reasons, and leave the decision to the conscience of his readers . " In all this discourse," says See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop See also:

• SANDERSON, ROBERT (1587-1663)

Sanderson, one of the best of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English writers, " I take it upon me not to write edicts, but to give my advice." Very soon, however, these See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of casuistry were swept away by the rising See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of common-sense . The 18th century loved to discuss hard cases of conscience, as a very cursory glance at See also:

• FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855)
• FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
• FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848– )

Fielding's novels (1742–1751) or Boswelll's Life of Johnson (1i91) will show . But the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age was incurably, suspicious of attempts to deal with such difficulties on any kind of technical system . See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope was never tired' of girding at " Morality by her false guardians drawn, See also:

• CHICANE

Chicane in furs, and casuistry in See also:

• LAWN

lawn "; while Fielding has embodied the popular conception of a casuist in See also:

• PARSON

Parson Thwackum and Philosopher Square, both of whom only take to See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument when they want to reason themselves out of some obvious duty . Still more outspoken is the Savoyard See also:

• VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute)

vicar in the Emile (1762) of See also:

• JEAN

Jean Jacques See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau: " Whence do I get my rules of action ? I find them in my See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart . All I feel to be good is good; all I feel to be evil is evil . Conscience is the best of casuists; it is only when men wish to cheat it that they See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly to logical quibbles." Extravagant as this sentiment sounds, it paved the way to better things . The great See also:

• OBJECT

object of 17th-century moralists had been to find some general principle from which the whole of See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics could be deduced; common-sense, by turning its back on abstract principles of every kind, forced the philosophers to come down to the solid See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and start by inquiring how the world does make up its mind in fact .

During the last two centuries See also:

• DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out of, derive)

deduction has gone steadily out, and See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology come in . Ethics have become more distinctively a science, instead of an awkward hybrid between a science and an art; their business has been to investigate what moral conduct is, not to See also:

• LAY

lay down the law as to what it ought to be . Hence they deliberately refuse to engage in casuistry of the old-fashioned sort . Further, it is increasingly felt that ethical judgments do not depend on reason alone, but involve every See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in our character; and that the real problem of practical morality is to establish a harmonious See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance between the intelligence and the feelings —to make a man's " I think this is right " correspond with his " I feel that it is so." Whether systematic training can do anything to make the attainment of this balance easier is a question that has lately engaged the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of many educational reformers; and whatever future casuistry may still have before it would seem to lie along the lines indicated by them . There is'an excellent study of the ancient casuists by M . See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond 'Thamin, Un Probleme moral dans l'antiquite (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1884) . For the Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic casuists see Dellinger and See also:

• REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH (1823-1900)
• REUSCH, HANS HENRIK (1852– )

Reusch, Moralstreitsgkeiten See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im siebzehnten Jahrhundert (2 vols., N6rdlingen, 1889), and various articles (" Casuistik," " Ethik," " Moralsysteme," &c.) in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexicon (See also:

• FREIBURG

Freiburg, 1880-1896) . See also the See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Pascal's Provincial Letters, by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John de Soyres (with English notes, See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, 1880), and A . See also:

• MOLINIER, AUGUSTE (1851-1904)

Molinier (2 vols., Paris, 1891) . The Anglican casuists are discussed in See also:

• WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866)

Whewell, Lectures on Moral Philosophy (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1862) . For general reflections on the subject see the appendix to See also:

• JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817-1893)

Jowett's edition of'the See also:

• EPISTLE

Epistle to the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans (London, 1855) . Most See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books on ethics devote some attention to the matter—notably F .

H . See also:

• BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821–1903)
• BRADLEY, JAMES (1693–1762)

Bradley in his Ethical Studies (London, 1876) . See also See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings Rashdall, Theory of Good and Evil (2 vols., See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1907) . (ST .