See also:

• CAUCASIA
• CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS

CAUCASIA, or See also:

• CAUCASUS

CAUCASUS  , a See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor-generalship of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, occupying the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus between the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and the Sea of See also:

• AZOV
• AZOV, SEA OF

Azov on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian Sea on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, as well as portions of the Armenian See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands . Its See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary is the Kuma-See also:

• MANYCH

Manych depression, a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of narrow, See also:

• HALF

half-desiccated lakes and See also:

• RIVER

river-beds, only temporarily filled with See also:

• WATER

water and connecting the Manych, a tributary of the See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don, with the Kuma, which flows into the Caspian . This depression is supposed to be a relic of the former See also:

• POST

post-See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene connexion between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and is accepted by most geographers as the natural frontier between See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and See also:

• ASIA

Asia, while others make the dividing-See also:

• LINE

line coincide with the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal water-parting of the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern boundary of See also:

• CAUCASIA
• CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS

Caucasia is in See also:

• PART

part coincident with the river See also:

• ARAS

Aras (Araxes), in part purely conventional and See also:

• POLITICAL

political . It was shifted several times during the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, but now runs from a point on the Black Sea, some 20 M. See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• BATUM

Batum, in a south-easterly and easterly direction to Mt . See also:

• ARARAT
• ARARAT (Armen. Massis, Turk. Egri Dagh, i.e. " Painful Mountain," Pers. Koh-i-Nuh, i.e. " Mountain of Noah,")

Ararat, and thence along the Aras to within 30 M. of its confluence with the Kura, where it once more turns south-east, and eventually strikes the Caspian at See also:

• ASTARA

Astara (300 35' N.) . This large territory, covering an See also:

• AREA

area of 180,843 sq. m., and having in 1897 9,248,695 inhabitants (51 per sq. m.) , maybe divided into four natural zones or sections: —(i.) the plains See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the Caucasus mountains, comprising the administrative See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of Northern Caucasia; (ii.) the Caucasus range and the highlands of See also:

• DAGHESTAN

Daghestan; (iii.) the valleys of the Rion and the Kura, between the Caucasus range and the highlands of See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia; and (iv.) the highlands of Armenia . (i.) The plains of Northern Caucasia, which include most of the provinces of See also:

• KUBAN

Kuban and See also:

• TEREK

Terek and of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of See also:

• STAVROPOL

Stavropol, slope gently downwards from the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Caucasus range towards the Kuma-Manych depression . It is only in their centre that they reach altitudes of as much as 2000-2500 ft. e.g. in the Stavropol " See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau," which stretches northwards, separating the tributaries of the Kuban from those of the Terek and the Kuma . Towards the foothills of the Caucasus they are clothed' with thick forests, while in the west they See also:

• MERGE

merge into the See also:

• STEPPES

steppes of south Russia or end in marshy ground, choked with reeds and rushes, in the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta of the Kuban . In the north and east they give See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, as the Manych and the coasts of the Caspian are approached, to arid, sandy, stony steppes . The See also:

• SOIL

soil of these plains is generally very fertile and they support a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of nearly 2,800,000 Russians, composed of See also:

• COSSACKS (Russ. Kazak; plural, Kazaki, from the Turki quzzaq, " adventurer, free-hooter ")

Cossacks and See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant immigrants, settled chiefly along the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and grouped in large, wealthy villages .

They carry on agriculturewheat-growing on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale—with the aid of See also:

• MODERN

modern agricultural See also:

• MACHINES

machines, and breed See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and horses . Vines are extensively cultivated on the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low levels, and a variety of domestic trades are prosecuted in the villages . The higher parts of the plains, which are deeply trenched by the upper tributaries of the rivers, are inhabited by various Caucasian races—Kabardians and Cherkesses (Circassians) in the west, Ossetes in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle, and several tribal elements from Daghestan, described under the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general name of Chechens, in the east; while nomadic Nogai See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars and Turkomans occupy the steppes . (ii.) The Caucasus range runs from north-west to south-east from the Strait of See also:

• KERCH, or KERTCH

Kerch to the Caspian Sea for a length of 900 M., with a varying breadth of 30 to 140 m., and covers a See also:

• SURFACE

surface of 12,000 sq. m . The orographical characteristics of the Caucasus are described in detail under that heading . (iii.) The combined valleys of the Rion and the Kura, which intervene between the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands, and stretch their axes north-west and south-east respectively, embrace the most populous and most fertile parts of Caucasia . They correspond roughly with the governments of See also:

• KUTAIS

Kutais, See also:

• TIFLIS

Tiflis, See also:

• ELISAVETPOL
• ELISAVETPOL (formerly Ganja, alternative names being KENJEH and KANGA)

Elisavetpol and See also:

• BAKU

Baku, and have a population of nearly 3,650,000 . The two valleys are separated by the low See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the Suram or Meskes mountains . Spurs from the Caucasus and from the Armenian highlands fill up the broad latitudinal depression between them . Above (i.e. west of) Tiflis those spurs so far intrude into the valley that it is reduced to a narrow 'See also:

• STRIP

strip in breadth . But below that See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city it suddenly widens out, and the width gradually increases through the stretch of 350 M. to the Caspian, until in the Mugan See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe along that sea it See also:

• MEASURES

measures See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. in width . The See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-clad peaks of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main Caucasus, descending by See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, steep slopes, fringe the valley on the north, while an abrupt escarpment, having the characteristics of a border ridge of the Armenian highlands, fronts it on the south .

The See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the valley slopes gently eastwards, from 1200 ft. at Tiflis to 500 ft. in the middle, and to 85 ft. below normal sea-level beside the Caspian . But the uniformity of the slope is interrupted by a plateau (2000-3000 ft. in See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude) along the southern foothills of the east central Caucasus, in the region known as Kakhetia, drained by the Alazan, a See also:

• LEFT

left-See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand tributary of the Kura . The deep, short See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges and glens which seam the southern slopes of the Caucasus are inhabited by Ossetes, Tushes, Pshays and See also:

• KHEVSURS

Khevsurs in the west, and by various tribes of See also:

• LESGHIANS, or LESCHIS (from the Persian Leksi, called Leki by the Grusians or Georgians, Armenians and Ossetes)

Lesghians in the east . In these high and stony valleys every available patch of ground is utilized for the cultivation of See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, even up to altitudes of 7000 and 8000 ft. above the level of the sea; but cattle-breeding is the principal resource of the mountaineers, whose little communities are often separated from one another by passes, few of which are See also:

• LOWER

lower than mono ft . The steppes along the bottom of the principal valley are for the most part too dry to be cultivated without See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation . It is only in Kakhetia, where numerous mountain streams See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields and gardens of the plateau of Alazan, that See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet and See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize are grown, and orchards, vineyards and mulberry plantations are possible . Lower down the valley cattle-breeding is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief source of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, while in the small towns and villages of the former Georgian See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom various See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty trades, exhibiting a high development of See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and technical skill, are widely diffused . The slopes of the Armenian highlands are clothed with See also:

• FINE

fine forests, and the See also:

• VINE

vine is grown at their See also:

• BASE

base, while on the wide-stretching steppes the Turko-Tatars pasture cattle, horses and See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, The lower part of the Kura valley assumes the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of a dry steppe, the rainfall not reaching 14 in. annually at Baku, and it is still less in the Mugan steppe, though quite abundant in the adjacent region of See also:

• LENKORAN

Lenkoran . The vegetation of the steppe is on the whole scanty . Trees are generally absent, except for thickets of poplars, See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf oaks and tamarisks along the course of the Kura, the delta of which is smothered under a See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle of reeds and rushes . The Mugan steppe is, however, in spite of its dryness, a more fertile region in virtue of the irrigation practised ; but the Kura has excavated its See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed too deeply to admit of that being done along its course . The Lenkoran See also:

• DISTRICT

district, sometimes called Talysh, on the western See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Kizil-Agach See also:

• BAY

bay, is blessed with a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich vegetation, a fertile soil, and a moist See also:

• CLIMATE

climate .

The inhabitants of the Kura valley consist principally of Iranian "fates and Talyshes, of Armenians and Lesghians, with Russians, See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews and See also:

• ARABS

Arabs., This conjoint valley of the Rion-Kura was in remote antiquity the site of several See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek colonial settlements, later the seat of successive kingdoms of the Georgians, and for centuries it has formed a See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark against hostile invasions from the south and east . It is still inhabited chiefly by Georgian tribes—Gurians, Imeretians, Mingrelians, Svanetians—in the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Rion, and by Georgians intermingled with Armenians in the valley of the Kura, while the steppes that stretch away from the lower course of the latter river are ranged over by Turko-Tatars . See also:

• MINGRELIA

Mingrelia and See also:

• IMERETIA, or IMERITIA

Imeretia (valley of Rion) are the gardens of Caucasia, but the high valleys of See also:

• SVANETIA

Svanetia, farther north on the south slopes of the Caucasus mountains, are See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild and difficult of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access . In the cultivated parts the See also:

• LAND

land is so exceedingly fertile and productive that it sells for almost fabulous prices, and its val,ue is still further enhanced by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper mines in the basin of the Rion, and of the almost inexhaustible supplies of See also:

• NAPHTHA

naphtha and See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum at Baku in the Apsheron See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . The principal products of the soil are mentioned lower down, while the general character of the vegetation is indicated under CAUCASUS: Western Caucasus . In the basin of the Rion, in that of the Chorokh (which runs off the Pontic highlands into the Black Sea south of Batum), and on the Black Sea littoral from Batum northwards to Sukhum-kaleh, and beyond, the climate is extremely hot and the rainfall heavy (see under Climate below) . It is in this valley that the principal towns (except See also:

• VLADIKAVKAZ

Vladikavkaz at the north foot of the Caucasus) of Caucasia are situated, namely, Baku (179,133 inhabitants in 1900), Tiflis (160,649 in 1897), Kutais (32,492), and the two Black Sea ports of Batum (28,512) and See also:

• POTI

Poti (7666) . (iv.) The highlands of Armenia are sometimes designated the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor Caucasus, Little Caucasus and See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti-Caucasus . But to use such terms for what is not only an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent, but also an older, orographical formation than the Caucasus tends to perpetuate confusion in See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical nomenclature . The Armenian highlands, which run generally parallel to the Caucasus, though at much lower elevations (5000-6000 ft.), are a plateau region, sometimes quite See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, sometimes gently undulating, clothed with luxuriant meadows and mostly cultivable . From it rise See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double or triple ranges connected by See also:

• CROSS

cross-ridges and spined with See also:

• OUTER

outer spurs . These double and triple ranges, which have a general See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of 8500-10,000 ft., stretch from the south-east See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the Black Sea, 400 M. south-eastwards to the Kara-dagh and Salavat mountains in north See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, and the latter See also:

• LINK

link them on to the See also:

• ELBURZ, or ALBURZ (from O. Pers. Hara-bere-zaili, the " High Mountain ")

Elburz mountains that skirt the southern end of the Caspian Sea .

Various names are given to the different parts of the constituent ranges, or, perhaps more correctly, elongated See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of mountains . The Ajar, Akhalt-See also:

• SIKH

sikh and Meskes or Trialety groups in the west are succeeded farther east by the Somkhet, Murguz, Ganji and Karabakh sections, forming the southern rim of the Kura basin, while parallel with them, but farther south, run the Mokry, Miskhan, Akmangan and Paltapin ranges, marking the northern edge of the Aras drainage area . These two sets of parallel ranges are linked together transversely by the cross-ridges of Bezobdal, Pambak, Shah-dagh and Gok-cha . From this last branches off the highest range in the entire See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, namely, the Zangezur, which soars up to 10,000 ft. above the left See also:

• BANK

bank of the Aras . From it again there shoot away at right angles, one on each side, the ranges of the See also:

• DAR

Dar-alagoz and Bergushet . These highlands exhibit very considerable evidences of volcanic activity both in remote See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological periods and also since the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch . Large areas are overlain with See also:

• TRACHYTE (Gr. rpaxus, rough)

trachyte, See also:

• BASALT

basalt, See also:

• OBSIDIAN

obsidian, See also:

• TUFF (Ital. tufo)

tuff and See also:

• PUMICE (Lat. purnex, spumex, spuma, froth)

pumice . The most conspicuous features of the entire region, See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Ararat (16,930 ft.) and Mount Alagoz (13,440 ft.), are both solid masses of trachyte; and both rise above the limits of perpetual snow . See also:

• EXTINCT

Extinct volcanoes are numerous in several of the ranges, e.g . Akmangan, Mokry, Karabakh and Egri-dagh (see below) . It is in this region of the Armenian highlands that the largest lakes of Caucasia are situated, namely, the Gok-cha or Sevanga (540 sq. m. in area) at an altitude of 6340 ft., the Chaldir-gol (33 sq. m.) at 6520 ft., and several smaller ones, such as the gols of Khozapin, Khopchalu, Arpa, Toporavan and Tabiztskhur, all situated between 6500 and 7000 ft. above sea-level . The principal water-See also:

• DIVIDE

divide in this highland region is, however, the range of Egri-dagh (Ararat), which just south of 4o° S. forms for too m. the boundary between See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish Armenia, having Ararat at its eastern extremity and the extinct See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano of Kessa-dagh (11,26o ft.) at its western .

Its importance lies in the fact that it divides the streams which flow into the Black Sea and Caspian from those which make their way into the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Gulf . The Egri-dagh possesses a sharply defined See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest, ranges at a general elevation of 8000 ft., is See also:

• BARE

bare of See also:

• TIMBER

timber, scantily supplied with water, and rugged and deeply fissured . The transverse water-parting between the Black Sea and the Caspian begins on the south side of the main range of the Caucasus, at Mount Zikara (12,56o ft.), a little south-west of See also:

• KASBEK (Georgian, Mkin-vari; Ossetian, Urs-khokh)

Kasbek, and runs south-west along the sinuous crests of the Racha, Suram or Meskes (3000-5000 ft.), Vakhan (1o,000-11,000 ft.), Arzyan (7000-10,000 ft.), and its continuation the Soganluk, thus linking the Caucasus ranges with those of the Armenian highlands . This line of heights separates the basins of the Chorokh and the Rion (Black Sea) from those of-the Aras and the Kura (Caspian Sea) . North of the Caucasus ranges the water-divide between these two seas descends from Mount Elbruz along the Sadyrlar Mountains (t 1,000 ft.), and finally sinks into the Stavropol " plateau " (1600 ft.) . But the main See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the transverse upheavals would appear to be continued in a north-eastern direction in the Andi and other parallel ranges of Daghestan, as stated under CAUCASUS . The population in this region consists principally of Armenians, Tatars, See also:

• TURKS

Turks, Kurds, Ossetes, Greeks, with Persians, Tates and a few Russians (see particulars below) . Climate.—Owing in part to the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in altitude in different regions of Caucasia and in part to the directions in which the mountain ranges run, and consequently the quarters towards which their slopes See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, the climate varies very greatly according to locality . Generally speaking, it may be characterized as a climate of extremes on the Armenian highlands, in the Kura valley and in northern Caucasia, and as maritime and genial in Lenkoran, on the Black Sea coastlands, and in thevalley of the Rion . The greatest recorded range of temperature is at See also:

• ERIVAN
• ERIVAN, or I1

Erivan (altitude 3230 ft.), namely, of 64° between a See also:

• JANUARY

January See also:

• AVERAGE

average of 14.9° and an See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August average of 78.8° F . At Sukhumkaleh, on the Black Sea, the corresponding range is only 27.3°, between a January average of 48.8° and an August average of 76.1° . The highest mean temperatures for the whole See also:

• YEAR

year are those of Lenkoran (60.3°) and of Sukhum-kaleh and Poti (about 58°), and the lowest at Ardahan (5840 ft.), in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• KARS

Kars, namely, 37'9°, and at Gudaur (7245 ft.), a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles south of Kasbek, namely, 38.6° .

The following table gives particulars of temperature averages at a few typical places: Place . Altitude . See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual January See also:

• JULY

July Mean . Mean . Mean . Stavropol 2030 47.00 24.00 70.0° Vladikavkaz 2345 47'3° 23'4° 68.o° Gudaur 7245 38.6° 20.3° 57.2° Baku on Caspian 58.o° 38.0° 80•o° Tiflis 1490 55 0° 32'0° 76'5° Batum on Black Sea 59.0° 42.0° 75.0° Sochi on Black Sea 56.3° 40.3° 76.1° Lenkoran on Caspian 60.3° 39.0° 8o•6° Erivan 3170 51•o° 15•o° 75.0° In respect of precipitation the entire region of Caucasia may be divided into two strikingly contrasted regions, a wet and a dry . To the former belong the Black Sea littoral, where the rainfall averages 59 to 93 in. annually, and the valleys that open upon it or are exposed to winds blowing off it, in which the rainfall varies, however, from 20 in . (Abbas-tuman, See also:

• BORZHOM

Borzhom) to 6o (Kutais) . In Lenkoran also the rainfall averages 40 to 50 in. in the year . Between 16 and 4o in. fall as a See also:

• RULE

rule at the northern foot of the Caucasus (1blozdok, See also:

• PYATIGORSK

Pyatigorsk) and in the Kura valley (Tiflis, Novo-bayazet) . On the Armenian highlands and on the steppes north of Pyatigorsk the rainfall is less than 12 in. annually, and even in some places less than 8 in., e.g. at the foot of Ararat . Most See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain falls at Batum and at Lenkoran in the autumn, in northern Caucasia and in See also:

• TRANSCAUCASIA

Transcaucasia in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring and summer, but in the vicinity of the Sea of Azov in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter .

See also:

• FLORA

Flora and See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—Plant-See also:

• LIFE

life, in such a mountainous See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country as Caucasia, being intimately dependent upon aspect and altitude, is treated under CAUCASUS . The wild animals of Caucasia are for the most part the same as those which frequent the mountainous parts of central Europe, though there is also an irruption of See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic forms, e.g. the See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger (in Lenkoran only), See also:

• PANTHER

panther, hyaena and See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal . The more important of the carnivores which haunt the forests, valleys and mountain slopes are the See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear (Ursus arcios), See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf, See also:

• LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx, wild See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat and See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox (Vulpes melanotus) . The wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar occurs around Borzhom . The See also:

• AUROCHS (from Lat. urns, the wild ox, and " ox ")

aurochs (See also:

• BOS, LAMBERT (1670—1717)

Bos urns) appears to exist still in the forests of the western Caucasus . Of See also:

• INTEREST

interest for sportsmen, as well as serving as See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey for the carnivores, are red See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, goats (Capra pallasit and C. aegagrus), See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois, See also:

• ROEBUCK, JOHN (1718-1794)
• ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR (1801-1879)

roebuck, moufflon (Ovis musimon), See also:

• ARGALI

argali or Asiatic wild sheep (O . See also:

• AMMON
• AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766—185o)

Ammon), another See also:

• SPECIES

species of sheep in O. gmelini, and See also:

• FALLOW

fallow deer (Capreolus pigargus) in northern Caucasus only . Rodents are numerous, the See also:

• MOUSE

mouse (See also:

• MUS

Mus sylvaticus) is very destructive, and beavers are met with in places . The birds of prey are the same as these of central Europe, and include the sea See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle, alpine See also:

• VULTURE

vulture (Gyps fulvus), See also:

• BUZZARD

buzzard, kites (Gypaelus barbalus and Milvus ater), See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks (e.g . Astur See also:

• NISUS

nisus) , goshawk (A. palumbarius), See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish-See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk (Pandion haliaetus) and owls . Among the smaller birds may be enumerated finches, the See also:

• SISKIN (Dan. sidsken, Ger. Zeisig and Zeising)

siskin, See also:

• BULLFINCH (Pyrrhula vulgaris)

bullfinch, See also:

• PIPIT (cognate with the Lat. Pipio; see PIGEON)

pipit, titmcuse, See also:

• WAGTAIL (Wagsterd and Wagstyrt, 15th century fide T. Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. 221, 253; Uuagtale, Turner, 1544, p. 53)

wagtail, See also:

• LARK (0. Eng. ldwerce, Ger. Lerche, Dan. Laerke, Dutch Leeuwerik)

lark, fine-crested See also:

• WREN (O. Eng. wrcknna, Mid. Eng. wrenne; Icel. rindill)
• WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-1723)

wren, hedge-See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow, See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-wren, See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut-See also:

• HATCH
• HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889)

hatch, See also:

• STARLING (0. Eng. staer steam, and slerlyng; Lat. surnus; Fr. etourneau)

starling, See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow, See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

martin, See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift, See also:

• THRUSH (A. S. Prysce, Icel. priistr, Norw. Trast, O. H. Ger. Drosce, whence the mod. Ger. prossel, to be compared with the analogous English form Throstle,l now almost obsolete, both being apparently diminutives)

thrush, See also:

• BUTCHER

butcher See also:

• BIRD

bird, See also:

• SHRIKE

shrike, dipper, yellow-See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer, See also:

• ORTOLAN (Fr. ortolan, Lat. hortulanus, the gardener bird, from hortus, a garden)
• ORTOLAN, JOSEPH LOUIS ELZEAR (1802-1873)

ortolan and a See also:

• WARBLER

warbler (Accentor alpinus) . The See also:

• GAME

game birds consist of See also:

• GROUSE

grouse, See also:

• BLACKCOCK (Tetrao tetrix)

blackcock, moorhen, See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail and See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge .

The See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant derives its name from the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient name (Phasis) of the Rion . In the seas and rivers about 190 species of fishes have been enumerated . Of these, 115 species are Mediterranean, 30 are See also:

• COMMON

common to the Caspian Sea, and the remaining species are See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to the Black Sea . The most useful economically are several species of See also:

• STURGEON (Acipenser)

sturgeon and of See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring, See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout, See also:

• BARBEL (Barbus vulgaris)

barbel, See also:

• CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845)
• CHUBB, THOMAS (1679-1946)

chubb, See also:

• BREAM (Abramis)

bream, See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

ray,sea-See also:

• DACE, DARE, or DART (Leuciscus vulgaris,, or L.. dobula)

dace, See also:

• CARP

carp, See also:

• ANCHOVY (Engraulis encrasicholus)

anchovy . See also:

• INSECTS

Insects abound, especially See also:

• COLEOPTERA

Coleoptera . Flies, lice, gadflies and mosquitoes are the worst of the See also:

• INSECT

insect plagues . There are several See also:

• SNAKES

snakes, including the See also:

• VIPER

viper (See also:

• PELIAS

Pelias berus) . See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology.—The population of Caucasia is increasing rapidly . In 1897 it numbered 9,291,090, of whom 4,886,230 were See also:

• MALES

males and 4,404,867 were See also:

• FEMALES

females . The most densely-peopled provinces were Kutais and Tiflis, each with 8o inhabitants to the square mile; the thinnest the Black Sea government (2o2 per sq. m.), Terek (31), and Kars (39) . Of the See also:

• TOTAL

total population 3,725,543 lived in northern Caucasia and 5,564,547 m Transcaucasia (including Daghestan) . In the latter territorial division there exists a great disproportion between the sexes, namely, to every zoo males only 86 females; indeed in the Black Sea government there are only 65•.5 females to every loo males .

Ethnologically the population belongs to a great variety of races . The older authorities asserted that these numbered as many as 'so, or even 300; the more See also:

• RECENT

recent researches of See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron P . V . Uslar, F . Anton, von See also:

• SCHIEFNER, FRANZ ANTON (1817-1879)

Schiefner, Zagursky, and others have greatly reduced this number; but even then there are not less than fifty represented . According to the See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages spoken the populations of Caucasia admit of being classified as follows,1 according to Senator N . Trointsky, See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the Russian See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

Census See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee for 1897 . See also:

• ARYANS

ARYANS 4,901,412 Slays 3,183,870 Great Russians . 1,829,793 Little Russians . . 1,305,463 See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Russians 19,642 Poles . 25,117 Germans 47,391 Greeks _ 100,299 Rumanians 7,232 See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and Italians 1,435 See also:

• LITHUANIANS

Lithuanians . 6,687 Lithuanians proper 5,121 Letts .

1,511 Iranians 315,695 Persians 13,929 Talyshes 34,994 Tates . 95,056 Ossetes 171,716 Kurds 99,836 Armenians 1,116,461 Gypsies . 3,041 SEMITES 46,739 Jews 40,498 Chaldaeans (Aisors) 5,353 URAL-ALTAIANS I,902,142 Finns . 7,432 Esthonians . 4,281 Turko-Tatars 1,879,908 Tatars • 1,509,785 Osmanli Turks . 139,419 Nogai Tatars 64,048 Turkomans 24,522 See also:

• BASHKIRS

Bashkirs 953 See also:

• CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES

Chuvashes 411 See also:

• KIRGHIZ

Kirghiz 98 Sarts 158 Karachais 27,222 See also:

• KUMYKS

Kumyks 83,408 Kara-papaks 29,902 Kalmucks 14,409 CAUCASIANS 2,439,071 Georgians (including Imeretians, Gur- ians, Svanetians, Lazes, Mingrel- ians, &c.) 1,352,455 Circassians Cherkesses (Adigheh) and Kabardians . Abkhasians . . 72,103 Chechens 274,318 Chechens proper 226,496 Ingushes2 47,409 Kistines 413 1 Premier Recensement general de la population de l'See also:

• EMPIRE

empire de Russie, ed . N . Trointsky (St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, 1905, 2 vols.), in Russian and French . 2 Although the Ingushes speak a Chechen See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect, they have recently been proved to be, anthropologically, quite a distinct See also:

• RACE

race . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—Most of the Russians and the Georgians belong to the Orthodox Greek See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church (over 4,000,000 in all); but considerable See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers (estimated at nearly 122,000, though in reality probably a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good many more) are Nonconformists of different denominations .

The Georgian Lazes are, however, Mussulmans . The Armenians are Christians, mostly of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national Gregorian Church (979,566), though 34,000 are See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics . The Caucasian races (except the Gregorians), together with the Turks and Tatars, are Mussulmans of the Sunnite See also:

• SECT

sect (2,021,300), and the Iranian races mostly Mussulmans of the Shiite sect (884,100) . The Kalmucks and other Mongolic tribes are Lamaists (20,300), and some of the Kurds profess the. peculiar tenets of the Yezids . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—The principal occupation of the settled inhabitants is See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and of the nomadic the breeding of live stock, including camels . The cultivation of the soil is, however, attended in many parts with great difficulties owing to the scanty rainfall and the very See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive implements still in use, and in the valley of the Kura heavy losses are frequently incurred from depredations by locusts . But where irrigation is employed the yield of crops is excellent . See also:

• RYE

Rye and wheat are the most important crops harvested in northern Caucasia, but oats, barley and maize are also cultivated, whereas in Transcaucasia the principal crops are maize, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton . The rice is grown chiefly in the valley of the Kura and in Lenkoran; the tobacco in the Rion valley and on the Black Sea coastlands, also to some extent in Kuban; and the cotton in the eastern provinces . Various kinds of See also:

• FODDER

fodder crops are grown in Transcaucasia, such as See also:

• HAY
• HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived, meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe ")
• HAY, GEORGE (1729—1811)
• HAY, GILBERT
• HAY, JOHN (1838–1905)

hay, rye-grass and See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

lucerne . It is estimated that nearly 54,000 acres are under vineyards in northern Caucasia and some 278,000 acres in Transcaucasia, the aggregate yield of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine being 30 million gallons annually . The best wine grows in Kakhetia, a district lying north-east and east of Tiflis; this district alone yields nearly 8 million gallons annually .

Large numbers of mulberry trees are planted for rearing silkworms, especially in Kutais, Erivan, Elisavetpol (See also:

• NUKHA

Nukha) and Baku (See also:

• SHEMAKHA

Shemakha); the groves occupy nearly 150,000 acres, and the winding of the See also:

• SILK

silk gives employment to large numbers of the population . Melons and water-melons are also important See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of cultivation . Sunflowers are very extensively grown for oil in the government of Kuban and elsewhere, and also some See also:

• FLAX

flax . See also:

• LIQUORICE

Liquorice is an See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of export . Many varieties of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit are grown, especially good being the apricots, peaches, walnuts and See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel nuts . A limited area (not more than 115o acres) of the Black Sea See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast between Sukhum-kaleh and Batum is planted with the See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea-See also:

• SHRUB

shrub, which succeeds very well . In the same district bamboos, See also:

• RAMIE (RHEA, CHINA-GRASS)

ramie-fibre and See also:

• ATTAR [or OTTO] OF ROSES (Pers. 'atar, essence)

attar (See also:

• OTTO

otto) of See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

roses are cultivated . The See also:

• MINING

mining See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry is growing rapidly in importance in spite of costly and deficient means of communication, want of See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, and lack of general initiative . So far the principal developments of the industry have been in the governments of Kutais, Batum, Elisavetpol and Kuban . Copper ore is extracted above the Murgul river (some 30 M. south of Batum), at Akhtala south of Tiflis, and at Kedabek in Elisavetpol; manganese to a consider-ably greater extent (over 400,000 tons annually) at Chiaturi in the Kvirila valley in Kutais . See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

Steam See also:

• COAL

coal of good quality is reported to exist about 30 M. inland from the open roadstead of Ochemchiri in Kutais, but it is not See also:

• MINED

mined . About 50,000 tons of coal of very poor quality are, however, extracted annually, and the same quantity of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt in the Armenian highlands and in Kuban .

Small quantities of quicksilver, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron are obtained . But all these are insignificant in comparison with the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral oil industry of Baku, which in normal times yields annually between ten and eleven million tons of crude oil (naphtha) . A good See also:

• DEAL

deal of this is transported by See also:

• <