CAUCASUS  , a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain range of See also:

• ASIA

Asia, wholly within the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, stretching See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east from the Strait of See also:

• KERCH, or KERTCH

Kerch (between the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and Sea of See also:

• AZOV
• AZOV, SEA OF

Azov) to the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian Sea, over a length of 900 m., with a breadth varying from 30 to 140 M . In its See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and conformation the Caucasus presents a closer See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy with the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees than with the See also:

• ALPS

Alps . Its general uniformity of direction, its comparatively narrow width, and its well-defined limits towards both south and north are all features which it has in See also:

• COMMON

common with the former . The range of the Caucasus, like that of the Pyrenees, maintains for considerable distances a high See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, and is not cleft by deep trenches, forming natural passes across the range, such as are common in the Alps . In both ranges, too, some of the highest summits stand on spurs of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main range, not on the main range itself; as Mont Perdu and Maladetta See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie south of the main backbone of the Pyrenees, so See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Elbruz and See also:

• KASBEK (Georgian, Mkin-vari; Ossetian, Urs-khokh)

Kasbek, Dykh-tau, Koshtan-tau, Janga-tau and Shkara—all amongst the loftiest peaks of the Caucasus—stand on a subsidiary range north of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal range or on spurs connecting the two . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, it is interesting to compare the arrangement of the drainage See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Caucasus with those of the Alps . Inboth orographical systems the principal See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers start nearly all together from a central See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus, and in both cases they radiate to opposite quarters of the See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass; but whereas in the Alps the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone and the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, flowing south-west and north-east respectively, follow See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal valleys, and the See also:

• AAR, or AARE

Aar and the See also:

• TICINO (Fr. and Ger. Tessin)
• TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus)

Ticino, flowing north-west and south-east respectively, follow transverse valleys, in the Caucasus the streams which flow south-west and north-east, namely, the headwaters of the Rion and the See also:

• TEREK

Terek, travel along transverse valleys, and those of the Kura and the See also:

• KUBAN

Kuban, flowing south-east and north-west respectively, See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse longitudinal valleys . For purposes of description it is convenient to consider the range in four sections, a western, a See also:

• MIDDLE

middle with two subsections, and an eastern . I . WESTERN CAUCASUS . This See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, extending from the Strait of Kerch to Mount Elbruz in 42° 40' E., is over 420 M. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, and runs parallel to the north-east See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Black Sea and at only a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance from it . Between the main range and the sea there intervene at least two parallel ranges separated by deep glens, and behind it a third subsidiary parallel range, likewise separated by a deep trough-like valley, and known as the Bokovoi Khrebet .

All these ranges are shorn through transversely by numerous glens and See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges, and, the rainfall being heavy and the exposure favourable, they are densely clothed with vegetation . Many of the spurs or broken segments of ranges thus formed abut steeply upon the Black Sea, so that this littoral region is on the whole very rugged and not readily accessible, especially as the general elevations are considerable . The seaward flanking ranges run up to 4000 ft. and more, and in many places shoot out cliffs which overhang the coast some 2000-3000 ft. sheer, while the main range gradually ascends to 10,000-12,000 ft. as it advances eastwards, the principal peaks being Fisht (8040 ft.), Oshten (9210 ft.), Shuguz (10,640 ft.), and Psysh (12,425 ft.) . And whereas the main range is built up of hard eruptive or crystalline rocks, the subsidiary chains are composed of softer (Cretaceous and See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary) laminated formations, which easily become disintegrated and dislocated . The See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-See also:

• LINE

line runs here at about 9000 ft. on the loftiest summits, and east of Oshten the See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the main range is capped with perpetual snow and carries many See also:

• HANGING

hanging glaciers, while larger glaciers creep down the principal valleys . The passes lie at relatively See also:

• GREAT

great altitudes and are few in number, so that although the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern versants of the various ranges all have a tolerably See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle slope, communication between the Black Sea and the valley of the Kuban, and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country beyond, is the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse of easy . The more important passes, proceeding from west to east, are Pshekh (5435 ft.) west of Oshten, and Shetlib (6o6o ft.) east of Oshten, Pseashka (688o ft.) east of Shuguz, Sanchar (7990 ft.) west of Psysh; and between the last-named mountain and Elbruz, facilitating communication between Sukhum-Kaleh (and the coast as far as See also:

• POTI

Poti) and the upper valley of the Kuban, are the passes of Marukh (11,500 ft.), Klukhor (9450 ft.) and Nakhar (9615 ft.) . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern exposure of this littoral region, the shelter afforded against the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter winds of the north by the lofty Caucasus range, and the copious rainfall all combine to See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

foster a luxuriant and abundant vegetation . The most distinguishing feature of the flora of this region is the predominance of arborescent growths; forests See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover in fact 56% of the See also:

• AREA

area, and are not only dense but laced together with climbing and See also:

• TWINING, THOMAS (1735-1804)

twining See also:

• PLANTS

plants . The commonest See also:

• SPECIES

species of trees are such as grow in central See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, namely, ash, See also:

• FIR

fir, See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine, See also:

• BEECH

beech, See also:

• ACACIA

acacia, See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut, See also:

• LAUREL

laurel, holm-See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, See also:

• ELM

elm, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, See also:

• YEW (Taxus baccata)

yew, See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder, See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow, oak . The common box is especially prevalent, but the preponderating species are Coniferae, including the Caucasian species Pinus halepensis and P. insignis . The commonest firs are Abies nordmannia and A. orientalis .

There are two native oaks, Quercus ponticus and Q. sessiliftora . A great variety of shrubs grow on these slopes of the western Caucasus, chiefly the following species, several of which are indigenous—See also:

• RHODODENDRON

Rhododendron ponticum, See also:

• AZALEA

Azalea pantica, Aristotelia maqui, See also:

• AGAVE

Agave americana, Cephalaria tatarica, See also:

• COTONEASTER

Cotoneaster pyracantha, Citrus aurantium, Diospyros ebenum, Ficus carica, Illicium anisatum, Ligustrum caucasicum, Punica granatum, Philadel phus coronarius, Pyrus salicifolia, Rhus cotinus and six species of See also:

• VIBURNUM

Viburnum . Aquatic plants thrive excellently and occur in great variety . The following purely Caucasian species also grow on the coast-five species of spearwort, three of See also:

• SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga)

saxifrage, See also:

• ASTER (Gr. /MrTI P, a star)

Aster caucasica, Dioscorea caucasica, Echinops raddeanus, Hedera colchica, Hellebores caucasica and Peucedanum caucasicum . Here too are found many of the more beautiful open-See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air flowering plants of a shrubby character, e.g. See also:

• MAGNOLIA

magnolia, azalea, See also:

• CAMELLIA

camellia, See also:

• BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany)

begonia and paulownia . Among the cultivated trees and shrubs the most valuable economically are the See also:

• VINE

vine, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach, See also:

• POMEGRANATE

pomegranate, fig, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive (up to 1500 ft. above sea-level), chestnut, See also:

• APRICOT (from the Lat. praecox, or praecoquus, ripened early, coquere, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly " apricock " and " abrecox," comes through the Fr. abricot, from the Span. albaricoque, which was an adaptation of the Arabic al-burquk, i

apricot, See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, See also:

• PLUM

plum, See also:

• CHERRY

cherry, See also:

• MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr. p XoaEawv, a kind of gourd; µijXov, apple, and a- brow, ripe)

melon, See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea (on the coast between Sukhum-Kaleh and See also:

• BATUM

Batum), See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize (yielding the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food of the inhabitants), See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat (up to 6000 ft.), potatoes, peas, currants, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, colza and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco . Before the Russian See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest the native inhabitants of this region were Kabardians, Circassians (Adigheh) and Abkhasians also a Circassian See also:

• RACE

race But See also:

• HALF

half a million of these th the yoke of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, emigrated into See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish territory See also:

• PEOPLE

people being Mahommedans, and refusing to submit to Name of See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak . See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

Altitude By whom ascended . Date . in Feet . Elbruz, E. peak . . 18,345 D .

W . Freshfield, A . W . See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Moore and C . See also:

• TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705-1774)
• TUCKER, JOSIAH (1712-1799)

Tucker 1868 Elbruz, W. peak 18,465 F . C . See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

Grove, H . See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker and F . See also:

• GARDINER
• GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745)
• GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829–1902)
• GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493–1555)

Gardiner 1874 ,, H . Woolley 1889 Donguz-orun . 14,600 G . Merzbacher and L .

Purtscheller 1890 See also:

• DONKIN, SIR RUFANE SHAW (1773-1841)

Donkin and H . See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

Fox 1888 Helbling, Reichert and See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber 1903 Shtavler 13,105 Ficker, W . R . Rickmers, Scheck and Wigner 1903 Ledosht-tau 12,58o Schuster and Wigner 1903 Hevai 13,055 Schuster and Wigner 1903 Lakra-tau 12,185 Rolleston and Longstaff 1903 Ushba, N.E. peak 15,400 Cockin 1888 Ushba, S.W. peak 15,410 Helbling, Schulze, Reichert, Schuster and 1903 Ushba, both peaks .. Weber 1903 Distel, Leuchs and Pfann Sultran-kol-bashi 12,495 Grove, Walker and Gardiner 1874 Bak 11,739 See also:

• COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732)
• COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726)
• COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789–1883)

Collier, Solly and See also:

• NEWMARCH, WILLIAM (1820-1882)

Newmarch 1894 Gulba 12,500 Freshfield 1887 Salynan-bashi 14,700 Cockin and H . W . Holder 1888 Shikildi-tau 14,170 Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber 1903 Bshedukh 14,010 Distel, Leuchs and Pfann 1903 Ullu-tau-cha.na 13,800 Rolleston and Longstaff 1903 Adyr-su-bashi 14,335 Holder, Cockin and Woolley 1896 Sullu-kol-bashi 13,970 Merzbacher and Purtscheller 1890 Tikhtengen 15,135 Rolleston and Longstaff 1903 Gestola 15,940 C . T . Dent and Donkin 1886 Tetnuld 15,920 Freshfield 1887 Merzbacher and Purtscheller 1890 Adish or Katuyn-tau . 16,295 Holder and Woolley 1888 Janga-tau, E. peak 16,525 Cockin 1888 Merzbacher and Purtscheller 1890 Janga-tau, E. and W . W. peak, Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber 1903 peaks i6,66o Shkara 17,040 Cockin 1888 Ailama 14,855 Woolley 1889 Ullu-auz 15,350 V . See also:

• SELLA, QUINTINO (1827-1884)

Sella 1888 Dykh-taut 17,050 Cockin, Holder and Woolley 1888 Koshtan-taut .

16,875 1 Woolley 1888 Mishirghi-tau, E. peak 16,350 Woolley 1889 Laboda . . 14,170 Dent and Woolley 1895 Tsikhvarga, E. peak 13,575 V . Sella 1890 W. peak 13575 Holder and Cockin 1890 Karagom-khokh or 14,295 Holder and Cockin 1890 Burdshula Adai-khokh 15,275 Holder and Cockin 1890 Tepli 14,510 V . Sella 1896 Kasbek 16,545 Freshfield, Moore and Tucker 1868 ,, Woolley 1889 Merzbacher 1890 V . Sella 1S96 Gimarai-khokh 15,670 Merzbacher 1890 Laila, N. peak 13,045 Freshfield and See also:

• POWELL, FREDERICK YORK (1850-1904)
• POWELL, GEORGE (c. 1658-1714)
• POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902)
• POWELL, VAVASOR (1617-1670)

Powell 1889 Laila, middle peak 13,155 V . Sella 1889 Laila, S. peak 13,105 Merzbacher and Purtscheller 1890 Khamkhakhi-khokh 14,o65 M. de Dechy 1884 1 Formerly the Koshtan-tau . 2 Formerly the Dykh-tau . between 1864 and 1878, and the country where they had lived remained for the most See also:

• PART

part unoccupied until after the beginning of the 20th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Then, however, the Russian See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government held out inducements to settlers, and these have been respondea to by Russians, Greeks, Armenians and Rumanians, but the See also:

• PROCESS

process of repeopling the long deserted territory is slow and difficult . The coast-line is remarkably See also:

• REGULAR

regular, there being no deep bays and few seaports . The best See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation that these latter afford consists of more or less open roadsteads, e.g . Novo-rossiysk, Gelenjik, See also:

• ANAPA

Anapa, Sukhum-Kaleh, Poti and Batum .

Along the coast a See also:

• STRING

string of summer bathing resorts is springing up similar to those that dot the south-east coast of the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea . The most promising of these little seaside places are Anapa, Gelenjik and Gagry . 2 . MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (a) Western Half.--This sub-section, with a length of 200 m., reaches from Mount Elbruz to Kasbek and the Pass of See also:

• DARIAL

Darial . It contains the loftiest summits of the entire range, fully a dozen exceeding Mont See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc in altitude (see table below) . In addition to the peaks enumerated in the table, the following also exist between Elbruz and Kasbek all exceeding 13,000 ft. in altitude: Dong-osenghi, 14,265 ft.; Kurmychi, 13,310 ft.; Ullu- % 14,070 ft.; Jailyk; 17,780 ft.; See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

List of Peaks in the west central Caucasus, with their altitudes, names and See also:

• DATES

dates of mountaineers Sarikol-bashi, 13,965 ft.; Dumala-tau, who have climbed them . 14,950 ft.; Sugan-tau, 14,730 ft.; Tiutiu-bashi, 14,500 ft.; Nuamkuam, 13,975 ft.; Zurungal, 13,915 ft.; See also:

• MALA

Mala-tau, 14,950 ft.; Tiutiun-tau, 15,115 ft.; Khrumkol-tau, 14,653 ft.; Bubis-khokh, 14,500 ft.; Giulchi, 14,68o ft.; Doppakh, 14,240 ft.; Nakhashbita-khokh, 14,405 ft.; Shankhokh, 14,335 ft.; Mishirghi-tau (W. peak), 16,410 ft.; Fytnargyn-tau, 13,790 ft.; Gezeh-tau, 14,140 ft.; and Kaltber, 14,460 ft . The crest of the main range runs continuously at an altitude exceeding lo,000 ft., but even it is surpassed in elevation by the secondary range to the north, the Bokovoi Khrebet . These two ranges are connected by more than half a dozen short trans-See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse spurs or necks, inclosing as many cirques or high cauldron glens . Besides the Bokovoi Khrebet several other short subsidiary ranges See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch off from the main range at acute angles, lifting up high montane glens between them; for instance, the two ranges in See also:

• SVANETIA

Svanetia, which See also:

• DIVIDE

divide, the one the See also:

• RIVER

river (glen) Ingur from the river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali, and the other the river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali from the rivers (glens) Lechkhum and Racha.Down all these glens See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier streams descend, until they find an opportunity to See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

pierce through the flanking ranges, which they do in deep and picturesque gorges, and then race down the northern slopes of the mountains to enter the Terek or the Kuban, or down the southern versant to join the Rion or the Kura . Amongst all these high glens there is a remark-able See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of lakes and waterfalls; nor are there down in the See also:

• LOWER

lower valleys at the See also:

• FOOT

foot bf the mountains, as one would naturally expect in a region so extensively glaciated, any sheets of See also:

• WATER

water corresponding to the Swiss lakes . In this section of the Caucasus the loftiest peaks do not(' as a See also:

• RULE

rule rise on the main range, but in many cases on the short spurs that See also:

• LINK

link it with the Bokovoi Khrebet and other subsidiary ranges .

" The central See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of the Caucasus," writes Mr See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

Douglas W . Freshfield,' " consists of a number of short parallel or curved See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe rides, crowned with rocky peaks and enclosing basins filled by the neves of great glaciers . . . On either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the main chain the same See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession is repeated, with one important difference . On the north the See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists come first, sometimes rising into peaks and ridges in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of ruin . . but more often worn to See also:

• ROLLING

rolling See also:

• DOWNS

downs; then the See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone range—See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing-See also:

• DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table," cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source)

desk mountains that turn their steep fronts to the central snows; lastly low Cretaceous foothills, that sink softly into the steppe . But on the south side the crystal-line rocks are succeeded by a broad See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of slates, as to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of which the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is at See also:

• PRESENT

present conflicting and the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of geologists divided . East of Adai-khokh, by what seems a See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange freak of nature, the granitic [main] range is See also:

• RENT

rent over and over again to its See also:

• BASE

base by gorges, the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed being transferred to the parallel chain of See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay slates . . . which has followed it from the Black Sea, attaining on its way the height of 13,400 ft. in the Laila, and limiting the great parallel basins of the Rion, Ingur and Skenis Shalt [ = Tskhenis-Tskhali] ..." " At the base of the central core of the chain spread (to the north) broad, smooth, grassy downs, the pastures of the Turk and the Ossete . Their ridges attain to 9000 to Io,000 ft . They are composed of friable crystalline schists . . Beyond these schists rises a broken See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of limestone, cleft to the base by gorges, through which flow the mountain torrents, and capped by See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale precipitous battlements, which See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face the central chain at a height of 11,000 to 12,000 ft .

Beyond, again, lies a broad furrow, or ' longitudinal See also:

• FOLD

fold,' as geologists See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it, parallel to the ridges, and then rises the last elevation, a belt of low calcareous hills, on which, here and there among the waves of beech See also:

• FOREST

forest, See also:

• PURPLE

purple or See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue with distance, a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white cliff retains its See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour and shines like a patch of fresh snow . Beyond, once more beyond, spreads the Scythian steppe, not the dead level of See also:

• LOMBARDY

Lombardy, but an expanse of long low modulations, which would be reckoned hills in our See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home counties, seamed by long shining See also:

• RIBBONS

ribbons, which See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the courses of the tributaries of the Terek . . Southwards too, immediately under the snows, we find ' crystalline sclusts,' smooth grassy heights, separated by shallow trenches, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the lesser undulations of the three basins, the drei Langenhochthaler Imeritiens of Dr Radde . These basins or' longitudinal folds' are enclosed on the south by the long high See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of dark slates, which extends parallel to the crystalline [main) chain from the neighbourhood of Sukhum-Kale to the Krestovaya Gora [pass of Darial.] Behind this See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate crest spreads a confused multitude of hills, See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic and Cretaceous in their formation . . . . Their See also:

• OUTER

outer edge, distant some 30 to 4om. from the snows, is marked by a limestone belt, lower and less continuous than that on the north, which frames the gorges of the Rion, and rises in the Kuamli (652 ft.) and Nakarala 4774 ft.) near See also:

• KUTAIS

Kutais, its best known elevations."' It may be added that, south of the central watershed, the strata, both Mesozoic and Palaeozoic, are compressed, crumpled, faulted and frequently over-folded, with their apices pointing to the south . Glaciers.—As a rule the snow-line runs at 9500 to 10,000 ft. on the northern face and moo ft. higher on the southern face . It is estimated that there are in all over nine See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred glaciers in this section of the range, and although they often See also:

• RIVAL

rival those of the Alps in See also:

• SIZE

size, they do not descend generally to such low altitudes as the latter . The best known are the Bezingi or Ullu, between Dykh-tau and Janga-tau, See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

roe m. long, covering an area of 31 sq. m., and descending to 6535 ft. above sea-level; Leksyr, situated south of Adyr-su-bashi, 71 M. long, 19 sq. m. in area, and creeping down to as low as 5690 ft., this being the lowest point to which any glacier descends on the south side of the range; Tseya or Zea, descending 6 m. from the Adai-khokh to an altitude of 673o ft.; Karagom, from the same mountain, 9i m. long, 14 sq. m. in area and reaching down to 5790 ft., the lowest on the north side; Dyevdorak' or Devdorak, from Kasbek, 24 M. long, its lower end at 7530 ft.; Khaldeh or Geresho 41 M. long, from Shkara and Janga-tau; Tuyber from Tetnuld, 64 m. long, area 21 sq. m., and reaching down to 6565 ft.; Tsanner or Zanner, the same length and the same area, but stopping short 240 ft. higher, likewise given off by Tetnuld; while between that peak, Adish and Gestola originates the Adish or Lardkhat glacier, 5 M. long and terminating at 7450 ft . The See also:

• TOTAL

total area covered by glaciers in the central Caucasus is estimated at 625 to 65o sq. m., the longest being the Maliev on Kasbek, 36 m. long; but according to the investigations of M . Rossikov several 1 Exploration of the Caucasus (2nd ed., 1902), i . 30-31 .

2 Op. cit. i . 35-36 . of the. largest glaciers are shrinking or retreating, the Tseya at the See also:

• RATE

rate of something like 40-45 ft. per annum . Passes.-It is in this section that the entire mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system is narrowest', and here it is that (apart from the " See also:

• GATE

gate " at See also:

• DERBENT, or DERBEND

Derbent See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close beside the Caspian) the principal means of communication exist' between north and south, between the See also:

• STEPPES

steppes of southern Russia and the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia and Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor . These means of communication are the passes of Darial and Mamison . Over the former, which lies immediately east of Kasbek, ' runs the Georgian military road (made 1811-1864) from See also:

• VLADIKAVKAZ

Vladikavkaz to See also:

• TIFLIS

Tiflis, cutting through the mountains by a See also:

• GORGE

gorge (8 m. long) of singular beauty, shut in by precipitous mountain walls nearly 6000 ft. high, and so narrow that there is only just See also:

• ROOM

room for the See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage-road and the See also:

• BRAWLING (probably connected with Ger. brallen, to roar, shout)

brawling river Terek side by side . The pass by which this road crosses the main range, farther south, is known as the Krestovaya Gora (Mountain of the See also:

• CROSS

Cross) and lies 7805 ft. above sea-level . The Mamison Pass, over which runs the Ossetic military road (made passable for vehicles in 1889)froni the Terek(below Vladikavkaz) to Kutais in the valley of the Rion, skirting the eastern foot of the Adai-khokh, lies at an altitude of 927o ft. and is situated a little south of the main range . Scarce any of the remaining passes in this west-central region are better than mountain paths; horses can traverse the best of them only during a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks in the height of summer . They mostly range at altitudes of 9000• 12,500 ft., and between the pass of Nakhar in the west and that of Mamison in the east there is not a single pass below Io,o00 ft . The best known in this section are the three Baksan passes of Chiper (ro,800 and 10,720 ft.), See also:

• BASSA

Bassa (9950 ft.) and Donguz-orun (10,490 ft.), south of Elbruz; those of Becho (11,070 ft.), Akh-su (12,465 ft.), Bak (10,220 ft.), Adyr-su (12,305 ft.) and Bezingi (10,090 ft.), between Elbruz and Dykh-tau; and those of See also:

• SHARI

Shari-vizk (11,560 ft.), Edena, Pasis-mta or Godivizk (11,270 ft.), Shtulu-vizk (io,86o ft.), Fytnargyn (1 r,130 ft.), between Dykh-tau and Adai-khokh; the Bakh-fandak (9570 ft.), between Adai-khohk and Kasbek; and the two Karaul passes (ir,68o and 11,270 ft.) and Gurdzi-vizk (10,970 ft.), connecting the valley of the Urukh with that of the Rion . The most frequented pass in Svanetia is that of Latpari (9260 ft.), situated in the first of the southern subsidiary ranges mentioned above, and thus connecting the valley of the Ingur with the valley oftheTskhenis-Tskhali .

Flora.—In this section of the range again the southern slopes are clothed with vegetation of remarkable luxuriance and richness, more especially in the region of Svanetia (42°-43°E.) . Not only are the plants bigger than they grow in the Alps, but the blossoms are more abundant . Here again forests of Coniferae predominate, especially on the northern and eastern slopes; and the other distinguishing features of the flora are gigantic male ferns (Aspidium filix-mas), See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris incomplete (a member of the Trilliaceae), Usnea or See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-See also:

• MOSS

moss, box, See also:

• HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium)

holly (Ilex agui See also:

• FOLIUM

folium), Lilium monadelphum and many of the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar herbaceous plants which See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower in See also:

• ENGLISH

English gardens, though here they grow to an altogether extraordinary size—" monkshoods, Cephalaria, Mlulgedia and groundsels, among which men on horseback might See also:

• PLAY

play at hide and seek without stooping " (E . Levier) . Other prominent species are See also:

• CAMPANULA (Bell-flower)

Campanula, See also:

• PYRETHRUM

Pyrethrum, See also:

• ACONITE (Aconitum)

aconite, Cephaglis, speedwell, Alchemilla sericea, See also:

• CENTAUREA

Centaurea macrocephala, Primula grandis and a species of See also:

• PRIMROSE

primrose . And the great height (13,000 ft.) at which the flowering plants blossom is not less remarkable than the great beauty and abundance of the See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers . Species which grow on both the northern and the southern slopes ascend,20oo ft. higher on the latter than on the former . Walnuts grow up to an altitude of S400 ft., the vine and mulberry up to 3250 ft., the lime and ash to 4000 ft . The forests extend to the upper end of the limestone gorges . Above that the crystalline schists are See also:

• BARE

bare of tree vegetation . The upper limit of arborescent vegetation is considered to run at 7000-7500 ft., of shrubs such as rhododendrons at85oo ft., and of pasture-lands up to 'woo ft . The principal cultivated varieties of plants in this section are wheat, See also:

• RYE

rye, oats, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, beans, See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet and tobacco .

3 . MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (b) Eastern Part.—In this sub-section, which stretches from Kasbek and the Darial gorge eastwards to the Baba-dagh in 48° 25' E., a distance of 330 M., the Caucasus attains its greatest breadth . For the whole of that distance the main range keeps at an average elevation of ro,000 ft., though the peaks in many instances See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower up 2000 to nearly 5000 ft. higher, the altitudes increasing towards the east . As the main range approaches the Caspian its See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite core gradually disappears, giving See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to Palaeozoic schists, which spread down both the northern and the southern slopes . The glaciers too decrease in the same proportion both in magnitude and in extent . Here the principal peaks, again found for the most part on the spurs and subsidiary ranges, are the Tsmiakom-khokh (13,570 ft.), Shan-tau (14,530 ft.), Kidenais-magali (13,840 ft.), Zilga-khokh (12,645 ft.), Zikari (12,565 ft.), Choukhi (12,110 ft.), Julti-dagh (12,430 ft.), Alakhun-dagh (12,690 ft.) and Maghi-dagh (12,445 ft.) . . On the main range itself stand Borbalo (10,175 ft.), Great Shavi-kildeh (12,325 ft.), Murov (11,xro ft.), Ansal (11,740 ft.), Ginor-roso (11,120 ft.), while farther east come Trfan-dagh (13,765 ft.) and Bazardyuz or Kichen (14,727 ft.) . In the same direction, but again outside the main range, lie Shah-dagh (13,955 ft.), Shalbuz (13,675 ft.) and Malkamud (12,750 ft.) . But the most noteworthy feature of this section is the broad highland region of See also:

• DAGHESTAN

Daghestan, which flanks the main range on the north, and sinks down both eastwards to the Black Sea and northwards to the valley of the Terek . On the north-west this rugged highland region is well defined by the distinctive trans-verse ridge of Andi, which to the east of Kasbek strikes off from the Caucasus range almost at right angles . The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the Daghestan region consists of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of roughly parallel folds, of Jurassic or Cretaceous age, ranging in altitudes from 7500 up to 12,500 ft., separated from one another by deep gorge-like river glens which cut it up into a number of arid, treeless plateaus which have something of the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent ranges, or rather elongated tablelands of a mountainous character . The most prominent of these tablelands is Bash-lam, which stretches east and west between the Chanti Argun and the Andian Koisu, both tributaries of the Terek .

Upon it rise the conspicuous peaks of Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.), Tugo-See also:

• ROTA, COURT OF

rota (13,795 ft.), Komito-tavi or Kachu (14,010 ft.), Donos-mta (13,560 ft.), Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.), Kvavlos-mta or Kolos-mta (13,080 ft.), Motshekh-tsferi (13,140 ft.) and Galavanas-tsferi (13,26o ft.) . Farther east come the See also:

• BOGOS (BILENs)

Bogos tableland, stretching from south-south-west to east-north-east between the Andian Koisu and the Avarian Koisu and rising to over 13,400 ft. in several peaks, e.g . Antshovala(13,440 ft.), Botshokh-See also:

• MEER, JAN VAN DER (1632-1675)
• MEER, OSWALD (1809–1883)

meer (13,515 ft.), Kosara-ku (13,420 ft.) and Addala-shuogchol-meer (13,580 ft.); and the Dyulty tableland, reaching 12,400 ft. between the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu . On some of these peaks again there is a considerable amount of glaciation, more particularly on the slopes of Diklos-mta, where the glaciers descend to 7700 ft. on the north side and to 8350 ft. on the south side . In this section of the Caucasus the passes run somewhat lower than those between Elbruz and Kasbek, though still at appreciable heights, fully equal to those that See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead up from the Black Sea to the valley of the Kuban in the western section of the range . The best known are the Krestovaya Gora (7805 ft.) on the Georgian military road, south of Darial; Kodor (9300 ft.) and Satskheni, leading up from See also:

• TELAV

Telav in the upper valley of the Alazan; and Gudur (10,120 ft.) and Salavat (9280 ft.), carrying the Akhty military road from the valley of the Samur up past the Shah-dagh and the Bazar-dyusi to the valley of the Alazan . The flora of this section bears a general resemblance to that farther west . Ample details will be found in Dr G . Radde's (1831–19o3) monographs on Daghestan, quoted at the end of the present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article . 4 . The EASTERN SECTION of the Caucasus gradually See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies away east of Baba-dagh (11,930 ft.) towards the Caspian, terminating finally in the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Apsheron . It is, however, continued under the waters of the Caspian, as stated in the article on that sea, and reappears on its eastern side in the Kopet-dagh, which skirts the north-east frontier of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia .

In this section of the Caucasus no peak exceeds 9000 ft. in altitude and the crest of the main range retains no snow . The most frequented pass, that of Alty-agach, necessitates a climb of not more than 4355 ft . Slopes of Range.—Between the northern and the southern sides of the range there is quite as great a difference in See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, productions and scenery as there is between the Swiss and the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian sides of the Alps . In the south-western valleys and on the south-western slopes of the Caucasus, where a heavy rainfall is combined with a warm temperature, magnificent forests clothe the mountain-sides and See also:

• DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

dip their skirts into the waters of the Black Sea . There not only the littoral from (say) Sukhum-Kaleh to Batum but the inland parts of the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Rion will See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear comparison with any of the provinces of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy in point of fertility, and in richness and variety of products . But farther inland, upon proceeding eastwards towards Tiflis, a great See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change becomes noticeable on the other side of the transverse ridge of the Suram or Meskes mountains . Arid .upland plains and parched hillsides take the place of the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich verdure and luxuriant arborescent growth of See also:

• IMERETIA, or IMERITIA

Imeretia, Svanetia and See also:

• MINGRELIA

Mingrelia, the districts which occupy the valleys of the Ingur and Rion and the tributaries of the latter . A very similar change likewise becomes noticeable in the higher regions of the Caucasus Mountains upon proceeding north of the pass of Mamison, which separates the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-waters of the Rion from those of the Ardon, an important tributary of the Terek . The valleys of the two streams last mentioned, and of others that flow in the same direction, are almost wholly destitute of trees, but where the bare See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock does not prevail, the mountain slopes are carpeted with grass . Fresh-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field's description of the valley of the Terek above Kasbek will apply See also:

• PRETTY

pretty generally to all the valleys that descend on that face of the range: " treeless valleys, bold rocks, slopes of forbidding steepness (even to eyes accustomed to those of the Alps), and stonebuilt villages, scarcely distinguishable from the neighbouring crags." But, austere and unattractive though these valleys are, the same epithets cannot be applied to the deep gorges by which in most cases the streams make their See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape through the northern subsidiary range . These defiles are declared to be See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior in grandeur to anything of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind in the Alps . That of Darial (the Terek) is fairly well known, but those of the Cherek and the Urukh, farther west, are stated to be still more magnificent .

And not only do the snow-clad ranges and the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-panoplied peaks which tower up above them surpass the loftiest summits of the Alps in altitude; they also in many cases excel them in boldness and picturesqueness of outline, and equal the most difficult of them in steepness and relative inaccessibility . See also:

• HYDROGRAPHY (.Gr. 6&,p, water, and cypfidiecv, to write)

Hydrography.—Nearly all the larger rivers of See also:

• CAUCASIA
• CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS

Caucasia have their See also:

• SOURCES

sources in the central parts of the Caucasus range . The short, steep, torrential streams of Mdzimta, Pzou, Bzyb and Kodor drain the country west of Elbruz . The Ingur, Tskhenis-Tskhali, Rion and its tributaries (e.g.the Kvirila) are longer, but also in part torrential; they drain the great glacier region between Elbruz and Kasbek . The Rion is the Phasis of the ancients and flows through the classic See also:

• LAND

land of See also:

• COLCHIS

Colchis, associated with the legends of See also:

• MEDEA (Gr. Mi/Seta)

Medea and the See also:

• ARGONAUTS ('Apyovavrat, the sailors of the "Argo ")

Argonauts . The Lyakhva and Aragva, tributaries of the Kura, carry off the waters of the main range south of Kasbek, and other tributaries, such as the Yora and the Alazan, collect the surplus drainage of the main Caucasus range farther east . The other large river of this, region, the See also:

• ARAS

Aras, has its sources, not in the Caucasus range, but on the Armenian highlands a long way south-west of See also:

• ARARAT
• ARARAT (Armen. Massis, Turk. Egri Dagh, i.e. " Painful Mountain," Pers. Koh-i-Nuh, i.e. " Mountain of Noah,")

Ararat . The rivers which go down from the central Caucasus northwards have considerably longer courses than those on the south side of the range, partly as a consequence of the gentler versant and partly also because of the great distances to which the steppes extend across which they make their way to the sea . The most important of these are the Kuban and the Terek; but it is the latter that picks up most of the streams which have their sources among the central glaciers, e.g. the Malka, Baksan, Chegem, Cherek, Urukh, Ardon, all confined to deep narrow glens until they quit the mountains . The Kuma, which alone pursues an independent course through the steppes, farther north than the Terek, has its sources, not in the main ranges of the Caucasus, but in an outlying See also:

• GROUP

group of mountains near See also:

• PYATIGORSK

Pyatigorsk, the highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of which, Besh-tau, does not exceed 4600 ft . But its waters become absorbed in the sands of the See also:

• DESERT

desert steppes before they reach the Caspian . Of the streams that carve into chequers the elevated See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau or highland region of Daghestan four are known by the common name of. the Koisu, being distinguished inter se as the Andian Koisu, the Avarian Koisu, the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu, which all unite to form the Sulak .

The only other stream deserving of mention in this See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province is the Samur . Both rivers See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge . their waters into the Caspian; as also does the Zumgail, a small stream which drains the eastern extremity of the Caucasus range in the government of See also:

• BAKU

Baku . Volcanic Evidences.—See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient, but now