See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

CAVE (See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CAVEA

cavea, from caves, hollow)  , a hollow extending beneath the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . The word " cavern " (See also:

• LAT

Lat. caverna) is practically a synonym, though a distinction is some-times See also:

• DRAWN

drawn between See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea caves and inland caverns, but the See also:

• TERM

term " See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave " is used here as a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general description . Caves have excited the See also:

• AWE, LOCH

awe and wonder of mankind in all ages, and have been the centres See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round which have clustered many legends and superstitions . They were the See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode of the sibyls and the See also:

• NYMPHS

nymphs in See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, and in See also:

• GREECE

Greece they were the temples of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus, See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan, See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus, See also:

• PLUTO (IlXoirrwv)

Pluto and the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

Moon, as well as the places where the oracles were delivered at See also:

• DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian inscriptions BeA4oi, on coins Aa)tg5oi)

Delphi; See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth and See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• CITHAERON

Cithaeron . In See also:

• PERSIA

Persia they were connected with the obscure See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of See also:

• MITHRAS

Mithras . Their names frequently are survivals of the superstitious ideas of antiquity, as, for example, the See also:

• FAIRY (Fr. fee, faerie; Prov. facia; Sp. hada; Ital. fata; med. Lat. fatare, to enchant, from Lat. fatum, fate, destiny)

Fairy, See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

Dragon's, or See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

Devil's Caves of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

Long after . the Fairies and Little Men had forsaken the forests and glens of Germany, they dwelt in their palaces deep in the Harz Mountains, in the Dwarfholes, &c., whence they came from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time into the upper See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . The Seven Sleepers of See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus slept their long See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep in a cave . The hills of See also:

• GRANADA
• GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588)

Granada are still believed by the Moorish See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children to contain the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BOABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah)

Boabdil and his sleeping See also:

• HOST

host, who will awake, when an adventurous mortal invades their repose, to restore the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain . Caves have been used in all ages by mankind for habitation, See also:

• REFUGE

refuge and See also:

• BURIAL

burial . In the Old Testament we read that when See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

Lot went up out of Zoar he dwelt in a cave with his two daughters . The five See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of the Canaanites took refuge from See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua, and See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David from See also:

• SAUL (Heb. shd'ul, " asked ")

Saul, in the caves of See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, just as the Aquitani fled from See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar to those of See also:

• AUVERGNE

Auvergne, and the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs of See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria to those of IDahra, where they were suffocated by See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal See also:

• PELISSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864)

Pelissier in 1845 .

In Central See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa David See also:

• LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873)

Livingstone discovered vast caves in which whole tribes found See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security with their See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household stuff . The cave of Machpelah may be quoted as an example of their use as sepulchres, and the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-hewn tombs of Palestine and of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and the Catacombs of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome probably owe their existence to the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient practice of burial in natural hollows in the rock . We might therefore expect to find in them most important See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence as to the ancient See also:

• HISTORY

history of mankind, which would reach long beyond written See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record; and since they have always 574 been used by See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts as lairs we might reasonably believe also that their exploration would throw See also:

• LIGHT

light upon the animals which have in many cases disappeared from the countries-which they formerly inhabited . The labours of See also:

• BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826–188o)
• BUCKLAND, WILLIAM (1784–1856)

Buckland, See also:

• PENGELLY, WILLIAM (1812-1894)

Pengelly, See also:

• FALCONER, HUGH (18o8–1865)
• FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732–1769)

Falconer, Lartet and See also:

• CHRISTY, HENRY (1810-1865)

Christy, and See also:

• BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825—1899)
• BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d. c. 1470)
• BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653)

Boyd See also:

• DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD (1838– )

Dawkins have added an entirely new See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter to the history of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, as well as established the changes that have taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• FAUNA

fauna . The See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical history of caves will be taken first, and we shall then pass on to the discoveries See also:

• RELATING

relating to man and the See also:

• LOWER

lower animals which have been made in them of See also:

• LATE

late years . Physical History.—The most obvious See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent in hollowing out caves is the sea . The set of the currents, the force of the breakers, the grinding of the See also:

• SHINGLE

shingle inevitably discover the weak places in the cliff, and leave caves as one of the results of their See also:

• WORK

work, modified in each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case by the See also:

• LOCAL

local conditions of the rock . Those formed in this manner are easily recognized from their floors being rarely much out of the See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal; their entrances are all in the same See also:

• PLANE

plane, or in a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of horizontal and parallel planes, if the See also:

• LAND

land has been elevated at successive times . From their inaccessible position they have been rarely occupied by man . Among them Fingal's Cave, on the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• STAFFA (Norse for staff, column, or pillar island)

Staffa, off the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, hollowed out of columnar See also:

• BASALT

basalt, is perhaps the most remarkable in Europe . In volcanic regions also there are caves formed by the passage of See also:

• LAVA

lava to the surface of the ground, or by the expansion of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam and gases in the lava while it was in a molten See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . They have been observed in the regions round See also:

• VESUVIUS (also Vesevus in ancient poets)

Vesuvius and See also:

• ETNA
• ETNA (Gr. AZ-rvn, from aZOw, burn; Lat. Aetna)

Etna, in See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland and See also:

• TENERIFFE [Tenerife]

Teneriffe .

We may take as an example the Grotto del See also:

• CANE

Cane (" cave of the See also:

• DOG

dog "), near See also:

• POZZUOLI (anc. Puteoli, q.v.)

Pozzuoli, a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles to the south-west of See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, remark-able for the flow of carbonic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid from crevices in the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor, 'which fills the lower See also:

• PART

part of the cave and suffocates any small See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, such as a dog, immersed long enough in it . The most important class of caves, however, and that which immediately demands our See also:

• NOTICE

notice, is that composed of those which have been cut out of calcareous rocks by the See also:

• ACTION

action of carbonic acid in the See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-See also:

• WATER

water, combined with the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction of the See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand and stones set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion by the streams which have, at one time or another, flowed through them . They occur at various levels, and are to be met with wherever the strata are sufficiently compact to support a roof . Those of See also:

• BRIXHAM

Brixham and See also:

• TORQUAY

Torquay and of the See also:

• EIFEL

Eifel are in the Devonian See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone; those of See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

Somerset, the Pennine See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, the central and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern counties of See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, and See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia, of See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine and See also:

• ANJOU

Anjou, of See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia and See also:

• KENTUCKY

Kentucky, are in that of the Carboniferous See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . The cave of Kirkdale in See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York-See also:

• SHIRE

shire, and most of those in See also:

• FRANCONIA (Ger. Franken)

Franconia and See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, penetrate See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic limestones . The Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones contain most of the caverns of France, rendered famous by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the remains of the cave-men along with the animals which they hunted; as well as those of the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees, the See also:

• ALPS

Alps, See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, Greece, See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia, See also:

• CARNIOLA (Ger. Krain)

Carniola and Palestine . The cave of Lunelviel near See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier is the most important of those which have been hollowed in limestones of the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary age . They are also met with in rocks composed of See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum; in Thuringia, for example, they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata of the Zechstein, and in the gypseous Tertiary rocks of the See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, as, for example, at See also:

• MONTMORENCY
• MONTMORENCY, ANNE
• MONTMORENCY, MATHIEU JEAN FELICITE DE

Montmorency . Caves formed by the action of carbonic acid and the action of water are distinguished from others by the following characters . They open on the abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels, and are arranged round the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main axes of erosion, just as the branches are arranged round the See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree . In a great many cases the relation of the valley to the See also:

• RAVINE

ravine, and of the ravine to the cave, is so intimate that it is impossible to deny that all three have been produced by the same causes . The caves themselves ramify in the same irregular See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion as the valleys, and are to be viewed merely as the capillaries in the general valley See also:

• SYSTEM

system through which the rain passes to join the main channels .

Some-times, as in the famous caves of See also:

• ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina)

Adelsberg, Kentucky, Wookey Hole in See also:

• SOMERSETSHIRE

Somersetshire, the See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak in See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire, and in many in the See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura, they are still the passages of subterranean streams; but very frequently the drainage has found an outlet at a lowerlevel, and the ancient watercourses have been deserted . These in every case See also:

• PRESENT

present unmistakable See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that they have been traversed by water in the sand, See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel and See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay which they contain, as well as in the worn surfaces of the sides and bottom . In all districts where there are caves there are See also:

• FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. founil, found in Breton, from Lat. infundibulum, that through which anything is poured, from fundere, to pour)

funnel-shaped depressions of various sizes called pot-holes or See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow-holes, or betoires, " chaldrons du diable," " marmites See also:

• DES

des geants," or " katavothra," in which the rain is collected before it disappears into the subterranean passages . They are to be seen in all stages, some being See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere hollows which only contain water after excessive rain, while others are profound See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical shafts into which the water is continually falling . Gaping Ghyl, 33o ft., and Helln Pot in See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, 300 ft. deep, are examples of the latter class . The cirques described by M . See also:

• DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANCOIS STANISLAS (1800-1887)

Desnoyers belong to the same class as the swallow-holes . The history of swallow-holes, caves, ravines and valleys in calcareous strata may be summed up as follows:--The calcareous rocks are invariably traversed by See also:

• JOINTS

joints or lines of shrinkage, which are lines of weakness by which the direction of the drainage is determined; and they are composed to a large extent of carbonate of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, which is readily exchanged into soluble bicarbonate by the addition of carbonic acid . The rain in its passage through the air takes up carbonic acid, and it is still further charged with it in percolating through the surface See also:

• SOIL

soil in which there is decomposing See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• MATTER

matter . As the raindrops converge towards some one point, determined by some local See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident on the surface, and always in a See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint, the carbonic acid attacks the carbonate of lime with which it comes into contact, and thus a funnel is gradually formed ending in the vertical joint below . Both funnel and vertical joint below are being continually enlarged by this See also:

• PROCESS

process . This chemical action goes on until the See also:

• FREE

free carbonic acid is used up .

The subterranean passages are enlarged in this manner, and what was originally an insignificant network of fissures is See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of halls, sometimes as much as from 8o to See also:

• IOO

ioo ft. high . These results are considerably furthered by the mechanical friction of the pebbles and sand hurried along by the current, and by falls of rock from the roof produced by the removal of the underlying strata . In many cases the results of this action have produced a See also:

• REGULAR

regular subterranean See also:

• RIVER

river system . The thick limestones of Kentucky, for example, are traversed by subterranean See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters which collect in large See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, and ultimately appear at the surface in full See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The river See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

Axe, near See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells, the stream flowing out of the Peak Cavern at See also:

• CASTLETON

Castleton, Derbyshire, that at Adelsberg in Carniola, flow out of caverns in full See also:

• VOLUME

volume . The river See also:

• STYX

Styx and the waters of See also:

• ACHERON

Acheron disappear in a series of caverns which were supposed to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead down to the infernal regions . If the direction of the drainage in the rock has been altered, either by elevations such as those with which the geologist is See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar, or by the opening out of new passages at a lower level, these watercourses become dry, and present us with the caves which have afforded shelter to man and the wild animals from the remotest ages, sometimes high up on the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of a ravine, at other times See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the level of the stream at the bottom . Caves, as a general See also:

• RULE

rule, are as little effected by disturbances of the rock as the ravines and valleys, which have been formed, in the main, irrespective of the lines of See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault or dislocation . We must now examine what happens to the bicarbonate of lime which has been formed by the action of the acid on the limestone . If a current of air See also:

• PLAY

play upon the surface of the water, the carbonic acid, which floats up the lime, so to speak, is given off and the insoluble carbonate is deposited, and as a result of this action we have the elaborate and fantastic stony incrustations termed See also:

• STALACTITES (Gr. (rraXaicros, from vraXaQVecv, to drip)

stalactites and stalagmites . The water percolating through the rock covers the sides of the cavern with a stalactitic drapery, and if a line of drops persistently falls from the same point to the floor, the calcareous See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit gradually descends from the roof, forming in some cases stony tassels, and in others long columns which are ultimately See also:

• UNITED

united to the calcareous See also:

• BOSS

boss formed by the plash of the water on the floor . The surface also of the pools is sometimes covered over with an See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-like See also:

• SHEET

sheet of stalagmite, which shoots from the sides, and sometimes forms a solid and See also:

• FIRM

firm floor when the water on which it was supported has disappeared .

Sometimes the drops See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a little calcareous See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, beautifully polished inside, which contains small See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl-like particles of carbonate of lime, polished by friction one against the other . The most beautiful stalactitic caves in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain are those of See also:

• CHEDDAR

Cheddar in Somerset, Caldy Island and See also:

• POOLE
• POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1699)
• POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879)
• POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895)

Poole's Cavern at See also:

• BUXTON
• BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707–1772)
• BUXTON, SIR THOMAS POWELL (1786-1845)

Buxton . A portion only of the carbonate of lime is thus deposited in the hollows of the rock from which it was taken; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is carried into the open air by the streams, in part deposited on the sides and bottom, forming tufa and the so-called petrifications, and partly being conveyed down to the sea to be ultimately secreted in the tissues of the See also:

• MOLLUSCA

Mollusca, Echinodermata and Foraminif era . Through these it is again collected in a solid form, and in the long course of ages it is again lifted up above the level of the water as limestone rock, and again undergoes the same series of changes . Thus the See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of carbonate of lime is a never-ending one from the land to the ocean, from the ocean to the land, and so it has been ever since the first stratum of limestone was formed out of the remains of the animals and See also:

• PLANTS

plants of the sea . The See also:

• RATE

rate of the See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of stalagmite in caverns is necessarily variable, since it is determined by the presence of varying currents of air . In the Ingleborough cavern a stalagmite, measured in 1839 and in 1873, is growing at the rate of •2946 in. per annum . It is obvious, therefore, that the vast antiquity of deposits containing remains of man underneath layers of stalagmite cannot be inferred from a thickness of a few inches or even of a few feet . The intimate relation which exists between caves and ravines renders it extremely probable that many of the latter have been originally subterranean watercourses, which have been unroofed by the degradation of the rock . In all limestone districts ravines are to be found continued in the same direction as the caves, and the process of atmospheric erosion may be seen in the fallen blocks of See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone which generally are to be met with at the mouths of the caverns . In See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of this the valley and caves of Weathercote, in Yorkshire, may be quoted, or the source of the Axe at Wookey; and the ravine formed in this way has very frequently been widened out into a valley by the action of subaerial See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste, or by the grinding of glaciers through it during the glacial See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of the See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . For further details as to the physical history of caverns we must refer the reader to the See also:

• WORKS

works quoted at the-end of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article, by E .

A . Martel. the intrepid explorer of most of the large European' caves, including those of Great Britain and Ireland . The history of the Glacieres or Ice-caves will be found in See also:

• BROWNE
• BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD (18,1–1891)
• BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705-1760)
• BROWNE, JAMES (1793–1841)
• BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES, COUNT VON, BARON DE CAMUS AND MOUNTANY (1705-1757)
• BROWNE, PETER (?1665-1735)
• BROWNE, ROBERT (1550-1633)
• BROWNE, SIR JAMES (1839–1896)
• BROWNE, SIR THOMAS (1605-1682)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM (1591–1643)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE (1768-1813)

Browne's Ice Caves in57.5 latter was filled with red and yellow clay, horizontally stratified and containing pebbles of See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone from the neighbouring See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of Axe Edge, and bones and See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of fossil mammals, some waterworn and others without traces of transport by water . All the mammals belong to well-known See also:

• SPECIES

species found in the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene strata of See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Anglia, and in Auvergne and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . Among them were the sabre-toothed See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion (Machairodus crenatidens), the See also:

• HYENA

hyena of Auvergne, the See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

mastodon, and the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant (E. meridionalis), and See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros (R . Etruscus), and See also:

• STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686)

Steno's See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse . Most of the bones had evidently been gnawed by hyenas and accumulated in one of their See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens, and had after-wards been carried by water into the See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers deep down in the rock, where they were found . Since that time the general level of the See also:

• DISTRICT

district has been lowered by denudation to an extent of more than 230 ft., and all the hyena dens destroyed with the Pliocene surface not only in this district but generally over the See also:

• WORLD

world ... In this case a covering of limestone some 270 ft. thick, including the See also:

• DEPTH

depth from the present surface, protected the remains from the denuding forces . The Pleistocene Caves.—The See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search after ebur fossile or unicorns' See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn, or in other words the fossil bones which ranked high in the materia See also:

• MEDIA

media; of the 16th and 77th centuries, led to the discovery of the ossiferous caverns of the Harz Mountains, and of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and Franconia . The famous cave of Gailenreuth in the last of these districts was explored by See also:

• GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848)

Goldfuss in 181o . The bones of the hyena, lion, See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf, See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox and See also:

• STAG (0. Eng. stagga, a Norse word, cf. Icel. steggr, steggi, a male animal, cf. Steggander, a drake; it is usually referred to stigan, to climb, to mount, but this is doubtful)

stag, which it contained, were identified by See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, and some of the skulls have been proved by See also:

• BUSK, GEORGE (1807—1886)

Busk to belong to the grizzly See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear .

They were associated with the bones of the See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer, horse and bison, as well as with those of the great cave bear . These discoveries were of very great See also:

• INTEREST

interest, because they established the fact that the above animals had 'lived in Germany in ancient times . The first See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone cave systematically explored in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England was one at Oreston near See also:

• PLYMOUTH
• PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF

Plymouth in 1816, which proved that an See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct species of rhinoceros (R. leptorhinus) lived in that district . Four years later the famous hyena den at Kirkdale in Yorkshire was explored by Buckland . He brought forward proof that it had been inhabited by hyenas, and that the broken and gnawed bones of the See also:

• MAMMOTH
• MAMMOTH (0. Russ. mammot, mod. mamant; the Tatar word mama, earth, from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist)

mammoth, rhinoceros, stag, bison and horse belonged to animals which had been dragged in for See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food . He pointed out that all these animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that it was impossible for the carcases of the rhinoceros, hyena and mammoth to have been floated from tropical regions into the places where he found their bones . He subsequently investigated bone caves in Derbyshire, South Wales and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and published his Reliquiae Diluvianae in 1822, a work which laid the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of the new See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of cave-See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting in this See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The well-known cave of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent's Hole near Torquay furnished McEnery, between the years 1825 and 1841, with the first See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint implements discovered in intimate association with the bones of extinct animals . He recognized the fact that they proved the existence of man in See also:

• DEVONSHIRE (DEvoN)
• DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Devonshire while those animals were alive, but the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea was too novel to be accepted by his contemporaries . His discoveries have since been verified by the subsequent investigations carried on by See also:

• GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633)
• GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797)
• GODWIN, WILLIAM

Godwin See also:

• AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)

Austen, and ultimately by the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of the See also:

• BRITISH

British Association, which worked for several years under the guidance of Pengelly . There are four distinct strata in the cave . 1st, The surface is composed of dark earth, and contains See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval remains, Roman pottery and articles which prove that it was in use during the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron, See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze and See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic Ages .

2nd, Below this is a stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from r to 3 ft., and covering (3rd) the red earth, which contained bones of the hyena, lion, mammoth, rhinoceros and other animals, in association with flint implements and an engraved antler, which proved man to have been an inhabitant of the cavern during the time of its deposition . 4th, Filling the bottom of the cave is a hard See also:

• BRECCIA

breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements, in the main ruder than those found above; in some places it was no less than 12 ft. thick . The most remarkable animal found in Kent's Hole is the sabre-toothed carnivore, Machairodus latidens of See also:

• OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683)
• OWEN, JOHN [OVENUS Or AUDOENUS] (c. 1560-1622)
• OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858)
• OWEN, SIR HUGH (1804-1881)
• OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804–1892)

Owen . While the value of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute the France and See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . Classifica.lion.—The caves which have offered shelter to the See also:

• MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

mammalia are classified according to their contents, and are of various ages, ranging from the Pliocene to the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . (1) Those containing the Pliocene mammalia belong to that age . (2) Those with the remains of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and other extinct species, or with paleolithic than (see See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

ARCHAEOLOGY), are termed Pleistocene . These are sometimes called See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary, under the mistaken idea that they belong to an age succeeding the Tertiary period . (3) Those which contain the remains of the domestic animals in association with the remains of man either in the Neolithic, Bronze or Iron stages of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization are termed Prehistoric . (4) The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• GROUP

group consists of those which can be brought into relation with the historic period, and are therefore termed Historic . The Pliocene Caves.—It is a singular fact, only to be explained by the vast denudation of the earth's surface since the Pliocene Age, that only one cave referable to that age has as yet been discovered, that at Doveholes near Buxton, Derbyshire, described by Boyd Dawkins in 1903 (Quart . Journ .

Geol . See also:

• SOC

Soc.) . The cave consists of a large horizontal chamber and a small passage, connected with a swallow-hole close by, and exposed in the working See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of a See also:

• QUARRY

quarry in 1901, at a depth of about 40 ft. from the surface . The locality is in the limestone See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, 1158 ft. high, which forms the See also:

• DIVIDE

divide between the waters flowing into the See also:

• MERSEY

Mersey on the west and the See also:

• HUMBER

Humber on the east . Both swallow hole and cave were completely blocked up with debris, and the 576 exploration of the cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man was coeval with the extinct mammalia, and in the following See also:

• YEAR

year additional proof was offered by the implements that were found in Wookey Hole . Similar remains have been met with in the caves explored since that time in Wales, and in England as far See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north as Derbyshire (Creswell), proving that See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

palaeolithic man hunted the mammoth and rhinoceros and other extinct animals over the whole of southern and See also:

• MIDDLE

middle England . The discoveries in Kent's Hole and in the Creswell caves prove further that palaeolithic man was in two stages of civilization—the ruder or riverdrift man, with implements of the type found in the river gravels (see ARCHAEOLOGY; and PALAEOLITHIC) being the older; and the more highly advanced, or the cave-man, mainly characterized by the better implements, and a singular facility in depicting animal See also:

• LIFE

life (as shown by the figure of a horse incised on the fragment of a bone found in the Creswell caves), being the newer . We may also conclude from the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of palaeolithic implements from the glaciated regions in which most of these caves occur, that both riverdrift and cave-men dwelt in middle and northern Britain in the pre-glacial age, their remains being protected in the caverns from the denuding forces that removed all traces of their existence from the surface of the ground in glacial and See also:

• POST

post-glacial times . The riverdrift man is, however, proved to be post-glacial in southern and eastern England, by the occurrence of his implements in the river gravels of that age . Both these peoples inhabited southern England and the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent before and after the glacial period . The riverdrift man, whose implements occur in river deposits in middle and southern Europe, in Africa, Palestine and Hindustan, is everywhere in the same age of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive barbarism, and has not as yet been identified with any living See also:

• RACE

race . The cave-men are in a higher and more advanced stage, and led a life in Europe identical with that of the Eskimos in the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic regions .

The Pleistocene Caves of the European Continent.—The re-searches of See also:

• MORTILLET, LOUIS LAURENT GABRIEL DE (1821-1898)

Mortillet have proved. that the same two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY