CEYLON  , a large See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island and See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony in the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian Ocean, separated on the N.W. from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India by the Gulf of See also:

• MANAAR, GULF OF

Manaar and Palk Strait . It lies between 5° 55' and 9° 51' N. and between 790 41' and 81° 54' E . Its extreme length from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is 2712 m.; its greatest width is 1372 m.; and its See also:

• AREA

area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or about five-sixths of that of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland . In its See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general outline the island resembles a See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, the See also:

• APEX

apex of which points towards the north . The See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with coast . India by the island of See also:

• RAMESWARAM

Rameswaram and See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam's See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge, a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of bold rocks reaching almost across the gulf at its narrowest point . Between the island andthe opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying See also:

• DEPTH

depth and width, beset by rocks and shoals . One of these, the Manaar Passage, is only navigable by very small See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . The other, called the Paumben Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the See also:

• MALABAR

Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing so to make the See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of the island . The See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and south coasts, which are uniformly See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, are fringed their entire length by coconut trees, which grow to the See also:

• WATER

water's edge in See also:

• GREAT

great luxuriance, and give the island a most picturesque See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . Along these shores there are numerous inlets and backwaters of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, some of which are available as harbours for small native craft . The See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east coast from Point de See also:

• GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE

Galle to See also:

• TRINCOMALEE

Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, wanting the ample vegetation of the other, and being at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of a bold precipitous character .

The largest See also:

• SHIPS

ships may freely approach this See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks, whose localities, however, are well known to navigators . Seen from a distance at sea this " utmost Indian isle " of the old geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance . The remarkable See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation known as " Adam's See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain monarch amongst an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the navigator when as yet the See also:

• COLOMBO

Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the ocean . The low coast-See also:

• LINE

line encircles the mountain See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of the interior on the east, south and west, forming a See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt which extends inland to a varying distance of from 3o to 8o m.; but on the north the whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to See also:

• BATTICALOA

Batticaloa is an almost unbroken See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent . The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area of about 4212 sq. m . The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great See also:

• SIZE

size and extent are sent off in many directions, the See also:

• LOWER

lower ranges See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest a remarkable tendency to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west . Towards the north the offsets of the mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system radiate to See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain . Detached hills are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc . Missaaka), which overlooks the sacred See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• ANURADHAPURA

Anuradhapura, and See also:

• SIGIRI

Sigiri . The latter is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the See also:

• DECCAN (Sans. Dakshina, " the South ")

Deccan—which, starting abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous path-ways or by steps hewn in the solid See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . For a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level . This elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts of the East .

The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit is said by the Brahmans to be the footstep of See also:

• SIVA

Siva, by the Buddhists of See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha, by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were divided between the conflicting claims of St See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas and the See also:

• EUNUCH (Gr. Evvoi3Xos)

eunuch of Candace, See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of See also:

• ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Gr. AlOtoaia)

Ethiopia . The footstep is covered by a handsome roof, and is guarded by the priests of a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich monastery See also:

• HALF

half-way up the mountain, who maintain a See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine on the summit of the peak . The highest mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude; Kirigalpota, 7 836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft . The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along their See also:

• BASE

base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe of the planter, who felled and burnt the See also:

• TIMBER

timber on all the finest slopes at an elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly cultivated See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee and afterwards See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea estates . Mountains . The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the See also:

• SANATORIUM (a modern Latinism, formed from sanare, to cure, restore to health, sanus, whole, healthy, well; often wrongly spelled sanatarium or sanitarium)

sanatorium of the island, is at an elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of the See also:

• HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. 1696–c. 1756)
• HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (18J5– )
• HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844–1895)

Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft., is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access, and are but little known to Europeans . The See also:

• TOWN

town of See also:

• KANDY

Kandy, in the Central See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

Province, formerly the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the native sovereigns of the interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level . The island, though completely within the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of oceanic evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers. extent, does not boast of any rivers of great See also:

• VOLUME

volume . The rains which See also:

• USHER (O. Fr. ussier, uissier, mod. huissier, from Lat. ostiarius, a door-keeper, ostium, doorway, entrance, os, mouth)
• USHER (or USSHER), JAMES (1581-1656)

usher in each See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon or See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season are indeed heavy, and during their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers . But when these cease the water-courses fall back to their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on horseback . The largest See also:

• RIVER

river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m., draining about one-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the sea at Trincomalee on the east coast .

There are twelve other considerable rivers, See also:

• RUNNING

running to the west, east and south, but none of these exceeds 90 in. in length . The rivers are not favourable for See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters, which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of canals all See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the western and See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern coasts . Steamers ply between Colombo and Negombo along this narrow See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal and See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake . A similar service on the Kaluganga did not prove a success . There are no inland lakes except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east of the island, and the backwaters on the coast . The lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and See also:

• KURUNEGALA

Kurunegala are artificial or partly so . See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

Giant's Tank is said to have an area of 638o acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres . The magnificent See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security and beauty by any haven in the See also:

• WORLD

world . The See also:

• ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

admiralty had a See also:

• DOCK

dock-yard here which was closed in 1905 . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which occur in situations far above high-water See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, and at some See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles distance from the sea . A great portion of the north of the island may be regarded as the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the See also:

• CORAL

coral polyps and the currents, which for the greater See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• YEAR

year set impetuously towards the south; coming laden with alluvial See also:

• MATTER

matter collected along the coast of Coromandel, and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand drifts, have formed the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of See also:

• JAFFNA

Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward till they unite with the narrow See also:

• CAUSEWAY

causeway of Adam's Bridge . See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary rocks are almost unknown .

The great See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological feature of the island is the profusion of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss, over-laid in many places in the interior by extensive beds of dolomitic See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone . This formation appears to be of great thickness; and when, as is not often the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, the under-See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the gneiss See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite . See also:

• VEINS

Veins of pure See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz and See also:

• FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR

felspar of considerable extent have been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of disintegrated felspar, or See also:

• KAOLIN

kaolin, commonly known as See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . At various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of See also:

• TRAP (0. Eng. treppe or traepee, properly a step, as that or which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe flight of stairs)

trap rock, upheaved whilst in a state of See also:

• FUSION

fusion subsequent to the consolidation of the former . In some localities on the seashore these veins assume the character of See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry highly impregnated with See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron . See also:

• HORNBLENDE

Hornblende and See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava See also:

• DISTRICT

district . See also:

• LATERITE (Lat. later, a brick)

Laterite, known in Ceylon as kabuk, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities in many parts, and is quarried for See also:

• BUILDING

building purposes . Climate.—The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula . Thetwo distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which accompany them, the south-west and the north-east . The former is very See also:

• REGULAR

regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west coast between the loth and 20th of May; the latter reaches the north-east coast between the end of See also:

• OCTOBER

October and the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other . The clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in copious showers .

But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that different sides of the same mountain See also:

• PRESENT

present at the same moment the opposite extreme of droughts and moisture . The influence of the north-east monsoon is more general . The mountains which See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face the north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains simultaneously on both sides of the island . The length of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, owing to the proximity of the island to the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator, does not vary more than an See also:

• HOUR

hour at any season . The mean time of the rising of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun's centre at Colombo on See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1st is 6h 23m A.M., and of its setting 6h 5m P.M . On See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 15th its rising is at 5h 45m A.M., and its setting at 6h 7m P.M . It is See also:

• MID

mid-day in Colombo when it is See also:

• MORNING

morning in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . Colombo is situated in 79° 50' 45" E., and the day is further advanced there than at See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich by 5h 19m 238 . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The characteristics of the low-growing See also:

• PLANTS

plants of Ceylon approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India . The Rhizophoreae are numerous along the low muddy shores of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt lakes and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list comprises Aegiceras fragrans, Epithinia malayana, Thespesia populnea, Feronia elephantum, Salvadora persica (the true See also:

• MUSTARD

mustard See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of Scripture), Eugenia bracteata, Elaeodendron Roxburghii, See also:

• CASSIA (Lat. cassia, Gr. mulct)
• CASSIA, VIA

Cassia See also:

• FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube)

Fistula, Cassia Roxburghii, &c . The herbaceous plants of the low country belong mostly to the natural orders Compost'. ae, See also:

• LEGUMINOSAE

Leguminosae, See also:

• RUBIACEAE

Rubiaceae, See also:

• SCROPHULARIACEAE

Scrophulariaceae and See also:

• EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbiaceae .

Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of 4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees assume an altered character . The foliage of the latter is larger and deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low country . The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns, Cyrtandreae, See also:

• COMPOSITAE

Compositae, Scitamineae and Urticaceae . The dense masses of lofty See also:

• FOREST

forest at that altitude are interspersed with large open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives patanas, and of value to them as affording pasturage for their See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle . Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met with partaking of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European forms, yet blended with tropical characteristics . The guelder See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, St See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John's wort, the See also:

• NEPENTHES (Gr. vrl7revOis, sc. Q,&puaeov, a drug that takes away grief, from vrl- privative, and 7rivOos, " grief ")

Nepenthes distillatoria or See also:

• PITCHER

pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups, sun-dews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of Magnoliaceae, See also:

• RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculaceae, Elaeocarpeae, &c . The most beautiful flowering See also:

• SHRUB

shrub of this truly alpine region is the See also:

• RHODODENDRON

rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft . It is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated See also:

• LAND

land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in See also:

• JUNE

June and See also:

• JULY

July . There are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour on the under side; the other, See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft. round the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem . At these altitudes See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, herbs and vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, oats and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley . English See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees grow, but rarely See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear . Grapes are grown success-fully in the north of the island .

The vines were introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter . The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude from the sea-See also:

• BEACH

beach to the loftiest mountain peak . They vary much in their hardiness and durability, from the See also:

• COMMON

common cashew-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut tree, which when felled decays in a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month, to the See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony and satinwood, which for many years resist the attacks of See also:

• INSECTS

insects and climate . Many of the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods are valuable for See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, and See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house and See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding, and are capable of See also:

• STANDING

standing long exposure to See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . The most beautiful woods adapted to furniture See also:

• WORK

work are the calamander, ebony, flowered satinwood, See also:

• TAMARIND

tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.; the See also:

• SACK

sack-yielding tree (Antiaris saccidora), for a long time confounded with the far-famed See also:

• UPAS

upas tree of See also:

• JAVA

Java (Antiaris toxicaria), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island . The Cocos nucifera, or coco-nut See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm, is a native of the island, and may justly be considered the most valuable of its trees . It grows in vast abundance along the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager requires . Its fruit, when green, supplies See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and drink; when ripe, it yields oil . The juice of the unopened See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower gives him toddy and arrack . The fibrous casing of the fruit when See also:

• WOVEN

woven makes him See also:

• ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836–1899)

ropes, nets, See also:

• MATTING

matting . The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c . The plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as See also:

• THATCH (O.E. thaec; the word is common to many Teutonic languages in the sense of " roof," " cover "; cf. Du. dak, Ger. Dach; from Du. dekken comes " deck "; the Indo-European root is stag, whence Gr. or.yos, roof, Lat. tegere, to cover; the French equiva

thatch for his cottage .

The dried leaves are used as torches, the large See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-stalks as See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden fences . The See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every possible purpose, from See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife-handles to See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door-posts; hollowed out it forms a See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe or a See also:

• COFFIN (from Lat. cophinus, Gr. K64wos, a coffer, chest or basket, but never meaning " coffin " in its present sense)

coffin . There are four kinds of this palm—the common, the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, the See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf and the Maldive . The See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra and Areca palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern, the latter in the western and central districts . The one is valuable chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory . The export See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable . Next in importance to the coconut palm among the indigenous products of Ceylon is the See also:

• CINNAMON

cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that name . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, which, though far inferior to those of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and the Indian See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent, is nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its strength, sagacity and docility . They are to be met with in greater or less See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior . Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds and plantations, committing great damage . In See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to protect these lands, and at the same time keep up the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• STUD

stud of See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught elephants, " kraals " or traps on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale are erected in the forests, into which the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild herds are driven; and once secured they are soon tamed and See also:

• FIT

fit for service . The oxen are of small size, but See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy, and capable of See also:

• DRAWING

drawing heavy loads .

Buffaloes exist in great numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a half-tame state for ploughing See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields and treading out the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn . They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on the See also:

• VILLAGE

village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support . Of See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, Ceylon possesses the spotted See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind (See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

Axis maculate), the See also:

• MUNTJAC

muntjac (Stylocerus muntjac), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly called the Ceylon See also:

• ELK

elk (Musa Aristotelis), and the small See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk (See also:

• MOSCHUS

Moschus minima) . There are five See also:

• SPECIES

species of monkeys, one the small rilawa (Macacus pileatus), and four known in Ceylon by the name of " wandaru " (See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

Presbyter See also:

• URSINUS, ZACHARIAS (1534-1583)

ursinus, P . See also:

• THERSITES

Thersites, P. cephalopterus, P . Priamus), and the small quadrumanous See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, the See also:

• LORIS

loris (Loris gracilis), known as the " Ceylon See also:

• SLOTH

sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox (Pteropus Edwardsii) . Of the See also:

• CARNIVORA

Carnivora the only one dangerous to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is the small See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black bear (Prochilus labiatus) . The See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger is not known in Ceylon, but the true See also:

• PANTHER

panther (Felis pardus) is common, as is the See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal (Canis aureus) and the mongoose or See also:

• ICHNEUMON (Gr. ixveu)

ichneumon (Herpestes vitticollis) . Rats are numerous, as are the See also:

• SQUIRREL
• SQUIRREL (Fr. ecureuil)

squirrel and the See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine, and the See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig-See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat or See also:

• BANDICOOT

bandicoot (See also:

• MUS

Mus bandicola), while the scaly See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

ant-eater (See also:

• MANES

Manes pentedactyla), locally known by the See also:

• MALAY

Malay name of See also:

• PANGOLIN

pangolin, is occasionally found . The See also:

• DUGONG

dugong (Halicore dugong) is frequently seen on various points of the coast . A See also:

• GAME

game preservation society and the judicious See also:

• ACTION

action of government have done much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c., by establishing a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close season . It is estimated that there must be 5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests .

A See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence to shoot or See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture and an export See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty are now levied by government . See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain V . See also:

• LEGGE
• LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897)

Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by the birds of South See also:

• AMERICA

America and Northern India . The eagles are small and rare, but See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a remarkable See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name of the " See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil-See also:

• BIRD

bird." The esculent See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift, which furnishes in its edible See also:

• NEST

nest the celebrated See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon . Crows of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl are abundant . There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds, several beautiful See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly-catchers and snatchers, the See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• ORIOLE (O. Fr. Oriol, Lat. aureolus)

oriole, parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen species . The Ceylon See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle-fowl (See also:

• GALLUS, C
• GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.)
• GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS

Gallus Lafayetti) is distinct from the Indian species . Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water birds—ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files, and on the deeper waters inland are found See also:

• TEAL (O.E. tele)

teal and a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl . Of the birds See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to European sportsmen there are See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge, See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail and See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe in abundance, and the See also:

• WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and wudu-snite)

woodcock has been seen . The poisonous See also:

• SNAKES

snakes of Ceylon are not numerous . Four species have been enumerated—the ticpolonga (Daboia elegans), the See also:

• COBRA (Naja tripudians)

cobra di capello (Naja tripudians), the carawilla (Trigonocephalus hypnale), and the Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus, which is so rare that it has no popular name . The largest snake in Ceylon is the " See also:

• BOA

boa," or " See also:

• ANACONDA

anaconda " of Eastern See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story (See also:

• PYTHON

Python reticulatus) ; it is from 20 to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals .

Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water reservoirs which See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the rice-fields; there are two species (C. biporcatus and C. palustris) . Of lizards the most See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note-worthy are the See also:

• IGUANA

iguana, several bloodsuckers, the See also:

• CHAMELEON