Online Encyclopedia

queen,who also had her chancellor . Such an office possessed an obvious capacity for developing on the judicial as well as the administrative See also:

side .

Appeals and petitions of aggrieved persons would pass through the chancellor's hands, as well as the See also:

POLITICAL

political See also:

correspondence of the king . Nor was the king the only See also:

man who had need of a chancellor . Great officers and corporations also had occasion to employ an See also:

AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent to do secretarial, notarial and judicial work for them, and called him by the convenient name of chancellor . The See also:

HISTORY

history of the office in its many adaptations to public and private service is the history of its development on judicial, administrative, political, secretarial and notarial lines . The model of the Carolingian court was followed by the See also:

MEDIEVAL

medieval states of Western See also:

EUROPE

Europe . In See also:

England the office of chancellor See also:

DATES

dates back to the reign of See also:

EDWARD

Edward the See also:

Con- The chan- See also:

CELLOR

cellor in fessor, the first See also:

ENGLISH

English king to use the See also:

Norman practice England. of sealing instead of See also:

SIGNING

signing documents; and from the Norman See also:

CONQUEST

Conquest onwards the See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of chancellors is continuous . The chancellor was originally, and See also:

long continued to be, an ecclesiastic, who combined the functions of the most dignified of the royal chaplains, the king's secretary in See also:

SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular matters, and keeper of the royal seal . From the first, then, though at the outset overshadowed by that of the See also:

JUSTICIAR (med. Lat. justiciarius or justitiarius, a judge)

justiciar, the office of chancellor was one of great See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and importance . As See also:

CHAPLAIN

chaplain the chancellor was keeper of the king's See also:

conscience; as secretary he enjoyed the royal confidence in secular affairs; as keeper of the seal he was necessary to all formal expressions of the royal will . By him and his See also:

STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff of chaplains the whole secretarial work of the royal See also:

HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household was conducted, the accounts were kept under the justiciar and treasurer, writs were See also:

DRAWN

drawn up and sealed, and the royal correspondence was carried on . He was, in fact, as Stubbs puts it, a sort of secretary of state for all departments . " This is he," wrote See also:

John of See also:

Salisbury (d .

118o), " who cancels (cancellat) the evil See also:

LAWS

laws of the See also:

REALM

realm, and makes equitable (aequa) the commands of a pious See also:

prince," a curious anticipation of the chancellor's later equitable See also:

jurisdiction . Under See also:

Henry II., indeed, the chancellor was already largely employed in judicial work, either in attendance on the king or in provincial visitations; though the See also:

PECULIAR

peculiar jurisdiction of the See also:

CHANCERY

chancery was of later growth . By this See also:

time, however, the chancellor was " great alike in See also:

CURIA

Curia and See also:

EXCHEQUER

Exchequer "; he was See also:

secundus a rege, i.e. took See also:

PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence immediately after the justiciar, and nothing was done either in the Curia or the ex-chequer without his consent . So great was his office that See also:

William FitzStephen, the biographer of See also:

BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118—1170)

Becket, tells us that it was not purchasable (emenda non est), a statement which requires modification, since it was in fact more than once sold under Henry I., See also:

Stephen, See also:

Richard and John (Stubbs, Const . Hist. i. pp . 384-497 See also:

GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH VON (1816-1895)

Gneist, Const . Hist. of England, p . 219), an evil precedent which was, however, not long followed . The judicial duties of the chancellor See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew out of the fact that all petitions addressed to the king passed through his hands . The number and variety of these became so great that in 128o, under Edward I., an See also:

ordinance was issued directing the chancellor and the justices to See also:

DEAL

deal with the greater number of them; those which involved the use of the great seal being specially referred to the chancellor . The chancellor and justices were to determine which of them were "so great, and of See also:

grace, that the chancellor and others would not despatch them without the king," and these the chancellor and other chief ministers were to carry in See also:

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person to the king (Stubbs ii . 263, See also:

note, and p .

268) . At this See also:

period the chancellor, though employed in See also:

EQUITY (Lat. aequitas)

equity, had ministerial functions only; but when, in the reign of Edward III., the chancellor ceased to follow the court, his tribunal acquired a more definite See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and petitions for grace and favour began to be ad-dressed primarily to him, instead of being merely examined and passed on by him to the king; and in the twenty-second See also:

YEAR

year of this reign matters which were of grace were definitely committed to the chancellor for decision . This is the starting-point of the equitable jurisdiction of the chancellor, whence See also:

DEVELOPED

developed that immense See also:

BODY

body of rules, supplementing the deficiencies or V .. 27modifying the harshness of the See also:

COMMON

common Iaw, which is known as Equity (q.v.) . The position of the chancellor as See also:

SPEAKER

speaker or See also:

PROLOCUTOR

prolocutor of the See also:

House of Lords dates from the time when the ministers of the royal Curia formed ex officio a See also:

PART

part of the See also:

commune The concilium and See also:

PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament . The chancellor originally chancellor attended with the other officials, and he continued to in parliaattend ex officio after they had ceased to do so . If he See also:

META

meta. chanced to be a bishop, he was summoned regularly qua bishop; otherwise he attended without See also:

SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons . When not a peer the chancellor had no See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in parliament except as chancellor, and the See also:

ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of 31 Henry VIII. cap. ro (1539) laid down that, if not a peer, he had " no See also:

INTEREST

interest to give any assent or dissent in the House." Yet See also:

Sir See also:

Robert See also:

Bourchier (d . 1349), the first See also:

lay chancellor, had protested in 1341 against the first See also:

STATUTE

statute of 15 Edward III . (on'trial by peers, &c.), on the ground that it had not received his assent and was contrary to the laws of the realm . From the time, however, of William, See also:

Lord See also:

Cowper (first lord high chancellor of Great See also:

BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain in 1705, created See also:

Baron Cowper in 1706), all chancellors have been made peers on their See also:

ELEVATION

elevation to the See also:

WOOLSACK

woolsack . Sometimes the custody of the great seal has been transferred from the chancellor to a See also:

SPECIAL

special official, the lord keeper of the great seal (see LORD KEEPER); this was notably the See also:

case under Queen See also:

Elizabeth (cf. the See also:

French garde See also:

des sceaux, below) .

Sometimes it is put into See also:

COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission, being affixed by lords commissioners of the great seal . By the See also:

CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 it was enacted that none of these offices could be held by a Roman Catholic (see further under LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR) . The'office of lord chancellor of See also:

Ireland, and that of chancellor of See also:

Scotland (who ceased to be appointed after the Act of See also:

Union of 1701) followed the same lines of deve bpment . The title of chancellor, without the predicates " high " or " lord," is also applied in the See also:

UNITED

United See also:

KINGDOM

Kingdom to a number of other officials and functionaries of varying See also:

RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and Chancellor importance . Of these the most important is the of the chancellor of the exchequer, an office which originated exchequer. in the separation of the chancery from the exchequer in the reign of Henry III . (1216-1272) . His duties consisted originally in the custody and employment of the seal of the exchequer, in the keeping of a See also:

COUNTER

counter-See also:

roll to check the roll kept by the treasurer, and in the See also:

DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of certain judicial functions in the exchequer of See also:

account . So long as the See also:

TREASURY

treasury See also:

BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board was in active working, the chancellorship of the exchequer was an office of small importance, and even during a great part of the 19th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century was not necessarily a See also:

CABINET

cabinet office, unless held in See also:

CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury . At the See also:

PRESENT

present time the chancellor of the exchequer is See also:

MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of See also:

FINANCE

finance, and therefore always of cabinet rank (see EXCHEQUER) . The chancellor of the duchy of See also:

Lancaster is the representative of the See also:

CROWN

crown in the management of its lands and the See also:

CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of its courts in the duchy of Lancaster, the See also:

PROPERTY

property of which is scattered over several counties . These lands and privileges, though their See also:

INHERITANCE

inheritance has always been vested in the king and his heirs, have always been kept distinct from the hereditary revenues of the See also:

SOVEREIGN

sovereign, whose See also:

PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine rights as See also:

DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Lancaster were distinct from his rights as king . The Judicature Act of 1873 See also:

LEFT

left only the chancery court of the duchy, but the chancellor can appoint and dismiss the See also:

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county court See also:

JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges within the limits of the duchy; he is responsible also for the'See also:

LAND

land revenues of the duchy, which are the private property of the sovereign, and keeps the seal of the duchy .

His See also:

APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment is by letters patent, and his See also:

SALARY

salary is derived from the See also:

revenue of the duchy . As the judicial and See also:

ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate work is done by subordinate officials, the office is practically a See also:

SINECURE (Lat. sine cura, without care)

sinecure and is usually given to a minister whose assistance is necessary to a See also:

government, but who for one See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason or another cannot undertake the duties of an important See also:

DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department . John See also:

Bright described him as the maid-of-all-work of the cabinet . The chancellor of a See also:

DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese is the official who presides over the bishop's court and exercises jurisdiction in his name . This use of the word is comparatively modern, and, though It Chancellor of the duchy . employed in acts of parliament, is not mentioned in the commission, having apparently been adopted on the See also:

ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of the Ecclesi- like title in the state . The chancellor was originally astical the keeper of the See also:

ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop or bishop's See also:

SEALS

seals; but case- the office, as now understood, includes two other cellars. offices distinguished in the commission by the titles of See also:

VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute)

vicar-See also:

general and official See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal (see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION) . The chancellor of a diocese must be distinguished from the chancellor of a See also:

CATHEDRAL

cathedral, whose office is the same as that of the See also:

ancient scholasticus (see CATHEDRAL) . The chancellor of an See also:

order of See also:

KNIGHTHOOD

knighthood discharges notarial duties and keeps the seal . The chancellor of a university is an official of medieval origin . The appointment was See also:

ACADEMIC

Academic, originally made by the popes, and the office from the first was one of great dignity and originally of great See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The chancellor was, as he remains, the See also:

head of the university; he had the general superintendence of its studies and of its discipline, could make and unmake laws, try and punish offences, appoint to professorial chairs and admit students to the various degrees (see Du Cange, s .

" Cancellarii Academiarum ") . In England the chancellorship of the See also:

UNIVERSITIES

universities is now a more or less ornamental office and is conferred on See also:

NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble-men or statesmen of distinction, whose principal See also:

FUNCTION

function is to look after the general interests of the university, especially in Its relations with the government . The chancellor is represented in the university by a See also:

VICE

vice-chancellor, who performs the administrative and judicial functions of the office . In the United States the heads of certain educational establishments have the title of chancellor . In Scotland the foreman of a See also:

JURY

jury is called its chancellor . In the United States the chancellors are judges of the chancery courts of the states, e.g . See also:

DELAWARE

Delaware and New See also:

Jersey, where these courts are still maintained as distinct from the courts of common law . In other states, e. g . New See also:

York since 1847, the title has been abolished, and there is no federal chancellor . In See also:

DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy generally the chancellor of an See also:

EMBASSY

embassy or See also:

LEGATION (Lat. legalio, a sending or mission)

legation is an official attached to the See also:

SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite of an See also:

AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador or minister . He performs the functions of a secretary, archivist, notary and the like, and is at the head of the chancery, or chancellery (Fr. chancellerie), of the See also:

MISSION

mission . The functions of this office are the transcribing and registering of official despatches and other documents, and generally the transaction of all the See also:

minor business, e.g. marriages, passports and the like, connected with the duties of a See also:

DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic agent towards his nationals in a See also:

FOREIGN

foreign See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country .

The dignified See also:

CONNOTATION

connotation of the title chancellor has given to this office a See also:

PRESTIGE

prestige which in itself it does not deserve; and " chancery " or " chancellery " is commonly used as though it were synonymous with embassy, while diplomatic See also:

style is sometimes called style de chancellerie, though as a See also:

MATTER

matter of fact the chanceries have nothing to do with it . See also:

France.—The country in which the office of chancellor followed most closely the same lines as in England is France . He had become a great officer under the See also:

CAROLINGIANS

Carolingians, and he grew still greater under the Capetian sovereigns . The great chancellor, summus cancellarius or archi-cancellarius, was a dignitary who had indeed little real power . The post was commonly filled by the archbishop of See also:

Reims, or the bishop of See also:

Paris . The cancellarius, who formed part of the royal court and administration, was officially known as' the sub-cancellarius in relation to the summus cancellarius, but as proto-cancellarius in regard to his subordinate cancellarii . He was a very great officer, an ecclesiastic who was the chief of the king's chaplains or king's clerks, who administered all ecclesiastical affairs; he had judicial See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, and from the 12th century had the general control of foreign affairs . The chancellor in fact became so great that the Capetian kings, who did not forget the See also:

mayor of the See also:

PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, grew afraid of him . Few of the See also:

early ecclesiastical chancellors failed to come into collision with the king, or parted with him on See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good terms . See also:

Philip See also:

AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus suspended the chancellorship throughout the whole of his reign, and appointed a keeper of the seals (garde des sceaux) . The office was revived under Louis VIII., but theecclesiastical chancellorship was finally suppressed in 1227 . The king of the 13th century employed only keepers of the seal .

Under the reign of Philip IV. le See also:

Bel lay chancellors were first appointed . From the reign of See also:

Charles V. to that of Louis XI. the French chancelier was elected by the royal See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . In the 16th century he became irremovable, a distinction more See also:

HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable than effective, for though the king could not dismiss him from office he could, and on some occasions did, deprive him of the right to exercise his functions, and entrusted them to a keeper of the seal . The chancelier from the 13th century downwards was the head of the law, and performed the duties which are now entrusted to the minister of justice . His office was abolished when in 1790 the whole judicial See also:

SYSTEM

system of France was swept away by the Revolution . The smaller chanceliers of the provincial parlements and royal courts disappeared at the same time . But when See also:

NAPOLEON

Napoleon was organizing the empire he created an arch-chancellor, an office which was imitated rather from the Erz-Kanzler of the See also:

HOLY

Holy Roman Empire than from the old French chancelier . At the Restoration the office of chancellor of France was restored, the chancellor being See also:

PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the House of Peers, but it was finally abolished at the revolution of 1848 . The administration of the See also:

LEGION (Lat. legio)

Legion of See also:

HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

Honour is presided over by a See also:

GRAND

grand chancelier, who is a grand See also:

CROSS

cross of the order, and who advises the head of the state in matters concerning the affairs of the order . The title of chancelier continues also to be used in France for the large class of officials who discharge notarial duties in some public offices, in embassies and consulates . They draw up diplomas and prepare all formal documents, and have See also:

charge of the See also:

REGISTRATION

registration and preservation of the archives . See also:

Spain .

In Spain the office of chancellor, canciller, was introduced by See also:

ALPHONSO

Alphonso VII . (1126-1157), who adopted it from the court of his See also:

COUSINS, SAMUEL (18o1-1887)

cousins of the Capetian dynasty of France . The canciller did not in Spain go beyond being the king's notary . The chancellor of the privy seal, canciller del sello de la puridad (literally the See also:

SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret seal), was the king's secretary, and sealed all papers other than diplomas and charters . The office was abolished in 1496, and its functions were transferred to the royal secretaries . The cancelario was the chancellor of a university . The canciller succeeded the maesescuela or scholasticus of a See also:

church or monastery . Canciller mayor de Castilla is an honorary title of the archbishops of See also:

Toledo . The gran canciller de See also:

las Indies, high chancellor of the Indies, held the seal used for the See also:

AMERICAN

American dominions of Spain, and presided at the council in the See also:

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the president . The office disappeared with the loss of Spain's empire in See also:

AMERICA

America . See also:

Italy, See also:

Germany, &c.—In central and See also:

NORTHERN

northern Europe, and in Italy, the office had different fortunes . In See also:

SOUTHERN

southern Italy, where See also:

Naples and See also:

SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily were feudally organized, the chancellors of the Norman kings, who followed Anglo-Norman precedents very closely, and, at least in Sicily, employed Englishmen, were such officers as were known in the West .

The similarity is somewhat concealed by the fact that these sovereigns also adopted names and offices from the imperial court at See also:

Constantinople . Their chancellor was officially known as Protonotary and See also:

LOGOTHETE (Med. Lat. logothela, Gr. Xo'yoBErtls, from Xdyos, word, account, calculation, and riOEvai, to set, i.e. " one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates ")

Logothete, and their example was followed by the See also:

German princes of the See also:

HOHENSTAUFEN

Hohenstaufen See also:

FAMILY

family, who acquired the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily . The papal or apostolic chancery is dealt with in the See also:

ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on the Curia See also:

ROMANA

Romana (q.v.) . It may be pointed out here, however, that the See also:

close connexion of the papacy with the Holy Roman Empire is illustrated by the fact that the archbishop of See also:

COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne, who by right of his see was the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor's arch-chancellor (Erz-Kanzler) for Italy, was confirmed as papal arch-chancellor by a See also:

bull of See also:

Leo IX. in 1(352 . The origin and duration of this connexion are, however, obscure; it appears to have ceased before 1187 . The last See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of a papal chancellor in the See also:

MIDDLE

middle ages dates from 1212, from which time onward, for reasons much disputed, the head of the papal chancery See also:

BORE

bore the title vice-chancellor (See also:

HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835–1898)

Hinschius i . 439), until the office of chancellor was restored by the constitution Sapientius of See also:

PIUS

Pius X. in 1908 . The title of arch-chancellor (Erz-Kanzler) was borne by three great ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire . The archbishop of See also:

MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz was arch-chancellor for Germany . The archbishop of Cologne held the dignity for Italy, and the archbishop of See also:

TRIER (French Troves)

Trier for See also:

Gaul and the kingdom of See also:

Arles . The second and third of these dignities became purely formal with the decline of the Empire in the 13th century . But the arch-chancellorship of Germany remained to some extent a reality till the Empire was finally dissolved in r8o6 .

The office continued to be attached to the archbishopric of Mainz, which was an electorate . Karl von See also:

DALBERG

Dalberg, the last holder of the office, and the first prince See also:

PRIMATE (from Low Lat. primas=one who held the first place, primas partes)

primate of the See also:

CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation of the See also:

RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, continued to act in show at least as chancellor of that body, and was after a See also:

FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion the predecessor of the Bundes Kanzler, or chancellor of the See also:

North German Confederation . The duties imposed on the imperial chancery by the very complicated constitution of the Empire were, however, discharged by a vice-chancellor who was attached to the court of the emperor . The See also:

abbot of See also:

FULDA

Fulda was chancellor to the empress . The house of See also:

Austria in their hereditary dominions, and in those of their possessions which they treated as hereditary, even where the See also:

SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty was in theory elective, made a large and peculiar use of the title chancellor . The officers so called were of course distinct from the arch-chancellor and vice-chancellor of the Empire, although the imperial crown became in practice hereditary in the house of See also:

HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG

Habsburg . In the family states their administration was, to use a phrase See also:

FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to the French, " polysynodic." As it was when fully developed, and as it remained until the See also:

March revolution of 1848, it was conducted through boards presided over by a chancellor . There were three aulic chancellorships for the See also:

INTERNAL

internal affairs of their dominions, " a united aulic chancellorship for all parts of the empire (i.e. of Austria, not the Holy Roman) not belonging to See also:

Hungary or Transylvania, and a See also:

SEPARATE

separate chancellorship for each of those last-mentioned provinces " (See also:

HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837)

Hartig, See also:

Genesis of the Revolution in Austria) . There were also a house, a court, and a state chancellor for the business of the imperial household and foreign affairs, who were not, however, the presidents of a board . These " aulic " (i.e. court) officers were in fact secretaries of the sovereign, and administrative or political rather than judicial in character, though the boards over which they presided controlled judicial as well as administrative affairs . In the case of such statesmen as Kaunitz and Metternich, who were house, court, and state chancellors as well as " united aulic" chancellors, the See also:

COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of offices made them in practice See also:

PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime ministers, or rather lieutenants-general, of the sovereign . The system was subject to modifications, and in the end it See also:

broke down under its own complications .

We are not dealing here with the confusing history of the See also:

AUSTRIAN

Austrian administration, and these details are only quoted to show how it happened that in Austria the title chancellor came to mean a political officer and minister . There is obviously a vast difference between such an official as Kaunitz, who as house, court, and state chancellor was minister of foreign affairs, and as " united aulic " chancellor had a general superiority over the whole machinery of government, and the lord high chancellor in England, the chancelier in France, or the canciller mayor in See also:

CASTILE, or CASTILLE (Castilla)

Castile, though the title was the same . The development of the office in Austria must be understood in order to explain the position and functions of the imperial chancellor (Reichs Kanzler) of the modern German empire . Although the present empire is sometimes rhetorically and absurdly spoken of as a revival of the medieval Empire, it is in reality an See also:

ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of the Austrian empire, which was a continuation under a new name of the hereditary Habsburg See also:

MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . The Reichs Kanzler is the immediate successor of the Bundes Kanzler, or chancellor of the North German Confederation (See also:

BAND

Band) . But the Bundes Kanzler, who bore no sort of resemblance except in See also:

mere name to the Erz-Kanzler of the old Empire, was in a position not perhaps actually like that of Prince Kaunitz, but capable of becoming much the same thing . When the German empire was established in 1871 Prince See also:

Bismarck, who was Bundes Kanzler and became Reichs Kanzler, took care that his position should be as like as possible to that of Prince Kaunitz or Prince Metternich . The constitution of the German empire is separatelydealt with, but it may be pointed out here that the Reichs Kanzler is the federal minister of the empire, the chief of the federal officials, and a great political officer, who directs the foreign affairs, and superintends the internal affairs, of the empire . In these German states the title of chancellor is also given as in France to government and diplomatic officials who do notarial duties and have charge of archives . The title of chancellor has naturally been widely used in the German and Scandinavian states, and in See also:

Russia since the reign of See also:

Peter the Great . It has there as elsewhere wavered between being a political and a judicial office . See also:

Frederick the Great of See also:

Prussia created a See also:

GROSS

Gross Kanzler for judicial duties in 1746 .

But there was in Prussia a state chancellorship on the Austrian model . It was allowed to See also:

LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse on the See also:

DEATH

death of See also:

HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822)

Hardenberg in 1822 . The Prussian chancellor after his time was one of the four court ministries (Hofamter) of the Prussian monarchy .

End of Article: CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

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