See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the See also:

• QUICHUA

Quichua See also:

• CHIN

chin , See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, or tchili, See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow)  , a See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America, occupying the narrow western slope of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent between See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru and its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern extremity . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map see See also:

• ARGENTINA

ARGENTINA.) It extends from the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• TACNA

Tacna, about 17° 25' S., to Cape See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

Horn at the extreme southern point of the Fuegian See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago in 550 58' 40" S., with an extreme See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian length of 2661 m., and with a See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast See also:

• LINE

line considerably exceeding that figure owing to a westward See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of about 31° and an eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8° . Its mainland width ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its See also:

• AREA

area, including the islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. in . See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile is thus a ribbon-like See also:

• STRIP

strip of territory between the See also:

• ANDES

Andes and the Pacific, comparatively See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line . It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by See also:

• BOLIVIA

Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific . Its eastern boundary lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA . The See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of 1879–81 with Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth her See also:

• TOTAL

total area . By subsequent agreements the Bolivian See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the Litoral, or See also:

• ATACAMA
• ATACAMA, DESERT OF

Atacama, and the Peruvian department of See also:

• TARAPACA

Tarapaca, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the See also:

• RIVER

river Ca114arones, which enters the Pacific at 19° 12' S . Under the treaty of See also:

• ANCON
• ANCON (from the Gr. ayi ww)

Ancon (loth See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1883) Chile was to retain See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the provinces of Tacna and See also:

• ARICA (SAN MARCOS DE ARICA)

Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of See also:

• MOQUEGUA

Moquegua for a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of ten years, and then submit " to popular See also:

• VOTE

vote whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of the territory . This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining See also:

• PART

part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua . Starting from the mouth of that river, in 17° 57' S., the disputed boundary follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the See also:

• ALTO (Ital. for " high ")

Alto do See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the See also:

• WATER

water parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the See also:

• CORDILLERA

Cordillera Silillica . Physiography.—For purposes of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general topographical description Chile may be divided into three regions: the See also:

• DESERT

desert region of the north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of See also:

• COQUIMBO

Coquimbo and See also:

• LLANQUIHUE (pron. fan-ke-wa)

Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy region south of See also:

• LAT

lat .

41° S . The desert region is an elevated arid See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft . From the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea this plateau escarpment has the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a range of See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat topped hills closely following the coast line . The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is made up of extensive plains covered with See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main cordillera enclosing elevated saline plateaus . This region is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some small river valleys where See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of some of the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vege-tation before it disappears in the thirsty sands . It is very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• MINERAL

mineral and saline deposits, however . The eastern parts of this region See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie within the higher ranges of the Andes and include a large See also:

• DISTRICT

district awarded to Chile in 1899 (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA) . This arid, See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the See also:

• GREAT

great Bolivian altaplanicie, and is known as the Puna de Atacama . Its See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft . A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and extensive See also:

• LAVA

lava beds See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover a considerable part of its surface . Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features of this region . From 28° S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the See also:

• SOIL

soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of See also:

• LIGHT

light periodical rains .

The slopes of the Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and coast are still barren . Beginning with the province of See also:

• ACONCAGUA

Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the See also:

• SHORE

shore line south to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain range of Chiloe and the islands of the western coast, which are the peaks of a submerged mountain See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain . Lying between this coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, extending from the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly over 62o m. with an average width of about 6o m . It is sometimes called the " Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most thickly-populated part of the republic . It is a highly fertile region, is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-fall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great productiveness . It slopes toward the south, and its See also:

• LOWER

lower levels are filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed . It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy tracts, as in See also:

• RUBLE

ruble and See also:

• ARAUCO

Arauco; in the north very little natural See also:

• FOREST

forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the plain is well covered with forest . South of 41 ° S. the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable . There are only a few scattered settlements within its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders, and a few nomadic tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast . The deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago, the outside See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima . The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially in the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a large number of See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and lakes . Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low level which in places See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea .

The extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic entrance to the Straits of See also:

• MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (in Sp. FERNANDO MAGALLANES, in Port. FERNAO DE MAGALHAES) (c. 1480-152I)

Magellan, and includes the greater part of the large See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of it . There are some comparatively level stretches of country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep farming has been established with some degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, wet and inhospitable . The perpetual snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the forest growth does not rise above an See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of loon to 1500 ft . It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area . Moantalns . The desert regions of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous . The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs and lateral ranges, cover a broad See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone on the eastern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad See also:

• ACNE

acne on its western side from about lat . 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloe, or below lat . 43° . This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle a slope as to be navigable . The Andes, however, See also:

• PRESENT

present an unbroken barrier on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, except at a few points in the south where the general elevation is not over 5000 to 6eoo ft., and where some of the Chilean rivers, as the Palena and See also:

• LAS

Las Heras, have their See also:

• SOURCES

sources on its eastern side .

From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes, apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several parallel ranges.appear on the See also:

• ARGENTINE

Argentine side and one on the Chilean side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau . The Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro Dona Ines, 16,706 ft . It is broken to some extent in See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the province of See also:

• ANTOFAGASTA

Antofagasta, the southern See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division being known as the Sierra de Huatacondo . At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and Chile, divides into two great ranges, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal one continuing almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian alta-planicie, and the other forming its western rim, where See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

GEOGRAPHY] it is known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental . The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs enclosing deep valleys . The whole system is volcanic, and a considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active, noticeably in central and southern Chile . The culminating point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft . In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined . The highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt . See also:

• MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat.'ntateola, a mallet)

Mace (lat . 8S.), 9711 ft., and Mt . Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft .

See also:

• CATHEDRAL

Cathedral See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak on See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and the highest point on Taytao See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula to 3937 ft . The coast range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in the province of See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

Santiago being 7316 ft . Between central Chile and the northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs See also:

• CROSS

cross the republic from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and fertility . The most famous of these is the " Vale of See also:

• QUILLOTA

Quillota " between See also:

• VALPARAISO

Valparaiso and Santiago . The Chilean Andes between Tacna and See also:

• VALDIVIA

Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of them at elevations exceeding 1o,000 ft . The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• MENDOZA
• MENDOZA, ANTONIO HURTADO DE (1593?-1644)
• MENDOZA, DIEGO HURTADO DE (1503-1575)
• MENDOZA, PEDRO GONZALEZ DE (1428-1495)

Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above: sea-level . The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in the summer See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the whole See also:

• YEAR

year . The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent elevation still subject Chile, in See also:

• COMMON

common with other parts of the western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances . In some instances since See also:

• EUROPEAN

European occupation, violent See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the coast . After the great earthquake of 1835 See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• FITZROY
• FITZROY, ROBERT (1805-1865)

FitzRoy (1805–1865) of H.M.S . " Beagle " found putrid See also:

• MUSSEL (0. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels)

mussel-shells still adhering to the rocks to ft. above high water on the island of See also:

• SANTA

Santa Maria, 30 M. from See also:

• CONCEPCION
• CONCEPCION, or VILLA CONCEPCION

Concepcion, and See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin declares, in describing that disaster, that " there can be no doubt that the See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the See also:

• BAY

bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land sometimes settling back to its former position . This happened on the island of Santa Maria after 1835 .

The existence of sea-shells at elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows that these forces, supplemented by a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual uplifting of the coast, have been in operation through See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long periods of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and that the greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea in this way . These earthquake shocks have two distinct characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a temblor, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal or rotary vibration, or See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion, also repeated at frequent intervals, called a terremoto, which is caused by a fracture or displacement of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's strata at some particular point, and often results in considerable damage . When the earthquake occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself . Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters . Coquimbo was swept by a tidal See also:

• WAVE

wave in 1849, and Concepcion and See also:

• TALCAHUANO, or TALCAGUANO

Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835 . The great earth-quake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was not followed by a tidal wave . These violent shocks are usually limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance . In this respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth extending from Concepcion to Chiloe . A study of Chilean earthquake phenomena, however, would probably See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to a division of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas . The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands extending from Chiloe S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which Coast. shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima . Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloe, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat . 450 50' to 46° 55' S.), and with the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloe .

The largest of these is the island of Chiloe, which is inhabited . Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the violent See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human occupation . Some of the smallest islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with forests . These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 M. wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the islands of the Chonos See also:

• GROUP

group . One of the narrow parts of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, which in-dents the continent over See also:

• HALF

half a degree at this point, and the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607)
• FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614)
• FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597)

Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp143 See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge-shaped See also:

• PROJECTION

projection westward, narrows the distance between the two to about 26 m . The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with which it is connected by the narrow See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus of Ofqui, over which the natives and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Penas . A short See also:

• SHIP

ship See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of over 760 m . A southern incurving projection of the See also:

• OUTER

outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of the same name . Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open Gulf of Penas, which carries the coast-line eastward fully See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. and is noticeably See also:

• FREE

free from islands . The northern entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf . Messier, See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt, Sarmiento and See also:

• SMYTH (or SMITH), JOHN (c. 1570-1612)
• SMYTH (or SMITH), WILLIAM (c. 1460-1514)
• SMYTH, CHARLES
• SMYTH, SIR WARINGTON WILKINSON (1817-1890)

Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. in length, See also:

• SEPARATE

separate another See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of archipelagoes from the mainland . These channels are in places narrow and tortuous .

Among the islands which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo (lying within See also:

• BAKER, HENRY (1698-1774)
• BAKER, SIR BENJAMIN (1840-1907)
• BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1644/5)
• BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893)
• BAKER, THOMAS (1656-1740)
• BAKER, VALENTINE [BAKER PASHA] (1827-1887)

Baker Inlet), See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry, Campana, Little Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre de Dios, See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

Duke of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham, See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover, See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, Contreras, See also:

• RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830)

Rennell and the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen See also:

• ADELAIDE
• ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999)

Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan . The large number of See also:

• ENGLISH

English names on this coast is due to the fact that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English See also:

• NAVAL

naval See also:

• OFFICERS

officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in use and form the basis of all subsequent maps . None of these islands is inhabited, although some of them are of large See also:

• SIZE

size, the largest (Great Welling-ton) being about loo m. long . It has likewise been determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat . 53° S., opens westward into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms See also:

• PONSONBY, JOHN (1713-1789)

Ponsonby Land and See also:

• CORDOBA
• CORDOBA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1453–15.15)

Cordoba '(or See also:

• CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857)
• CROKER, RICHARD (1843– )
• CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854)

Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has been given . The existence of such a channel was considered probable when these inland See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters of a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century had elapsed . Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, See also:

• CLARENCE, DUKES OF

Clarence, See also:

• DAWSON, GEORGE (1821-1876)
• DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1899)

Dawson, See also:

• LONDONDERRY
• LONDONDERRY, CHARLES WILLIAM STEWART (VANE), 3RD MARQUESS
• LONDONDERRY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• LONDONDERRY, or DERRY
• LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUESS OF (1769-1822)

Londonderry, See also:

• HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (178o-1828)

Hoste, Navarin and See also:

• WOLLASTON, WILLIAM (1659--1724)
• WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE (1766-1828)

Wollaston islands, with innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the channels between them . Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be found in the Narrative of the See also:

• SURVEYING

Surveying Voyages of His See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty's See also:

• SHIPS

Ships "See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 2826 and 1836 (3 vols., 1839) . The western and -larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to Chile . About 63 m . S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat . 56 25' S., is the Diego Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of the republic .

Its westernmost possessions are See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala-y-See also:

• GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (ff. 1440-1482)

Gomez and See also:

• EASTER

Easter islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6' S., 109° 17' W . Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan See also:

• FERNANDEZ, ALVARO
• FERNANDEZ, DIEGO
• FERNANDEZ, JOHN (Joao, Joam)
• FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570)
• FERNANDEZ, LUCAS

Fernandez group, and rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 M. farther north of the latter are the rocky islets of See also:

• SAN

San Ambrosio and San See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix, all belonging to Chile . North of Chiloe there are few islands in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close proximity to the coast . The more important of these are La Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat . 38° 2o' S., which is 8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, 30 M. south-west of Concepci6n, which partially encloses the Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the See also:

• PORT

port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepcion bay . There are a few barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between Coquimbo and Caldera . Since the removal of their See also:

• GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung)

guano deposits they have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages . ' The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good harbours . Those of the desert region are only slight indentations in a remarkably See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform coast-line, sheltered on Harbours. one side by a point of land, or small island . The landings are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the unprotected side . Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Caldera, See also:

• IQUIQUE

Iquique and Arica . There are some small harbours for See also:

• COASTING

coasting vessels of light See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught along the coast of central Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger rivers, as San See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio near the mouth of the Maipe, Constitucien at the mouth of the See also:

• MAULE

Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but there is no See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of importance until Concepcion (or Talcahuano) Bay is reached .

There are three harbours on this bay, El Tome, Penco and Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast . Immediately south of this bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river discharges, and on which, sheltered 'by the island of Santa Maria, are the ports of Coronet and Lota . The next important harbour is that of El See also:

• CORRAL (Span. from corro, a circle)

Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the city of Valdivia . The Bay of San See also:

• CARLOS, DON (1545-1568)
• CARLOS, DON (1788-1855)
• CARLOS, DON (CHARLES MARIA DE LOS DOLORES JUAN ISIDOR.E JOSEPH FRANCIS QUIRIN ANTONY MICHAEL GABRIEL RAPHAEL) (1848—1909)

Carlos on the northern coast of Chiloe, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port -f Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of light and See also:

• MEDIUM

medium draught . Inside the island of Chiloe the large gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from :he severe westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 M. wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 M. wide and i co m. long, are beset with small rocky islands . At the north end of the first is the Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto See also:

• MONTT, MANUEL (1809-1880)

Montt, the southern See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of the Chilean central railway . The large Gulf of Penas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural harbours . Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan, and See also:

• TARN
• TARN (O. Eng. tame, Scand. tjarn, tjdrn, horn, &c.)

Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel . The next 300 M. of the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate inhospitable . Behind Rennell Island in lat . 52° S., however, is a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the Argentine frontier . The central part of this group of estuaries is called See also:

• WORSLEY
• WORSLEY, PHILIP STANHOPE (1835-1866)

Worsley See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is Last See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean agricultural See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of Puerto Consuelo .

The Straits of Magellan, about 36o m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory . Midway of them is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern See also:

• TOWN

town and port of the republic . Except in the extreme south the See also:

• HYDROGRAPHY (.Gr. 6&,p, water, and cypfidiecv, to write)

hydrography of Chile is of the simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in the Rivers, Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific . Their courses are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 M . Nearly all rivers in the desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast . Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of a time when climatological conditions on this coast were different . The principal See also:

• DIVERS

Divers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapo, Huasco, Elqui, Limari and Choapa . The Loa is the largest, having its sources on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano, between 21° and 21 ° 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau to Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga, whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in lat . 21 ° 28' S., a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles south of the small port of Huanillos . Its total length is estimated at 250 M . The upper courses of the river are at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large See also:

• VOLUME

volume of water from the Cordilleras . The water of its upper course and tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes brackish .

The Copiapo, which once discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name . The Copiapo and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras . The latter is also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley . The rivers of the province of Coquimbo—the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa—exist under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua—the Ligua and Aconcagua—are used to irrigate a much larger area of cultivated territory . The central agricultural provinces are traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great central valley of Chile . These are the Maipo (Maypo or Maipu), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin . With the exception of the first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths . The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of which are navigable . These rivers have been of great service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of transportation where See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways and highways were entirely lacking . Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which waters an extensive part of the province of See also:

• TALCA

Talca and enters the Maule from the north; the Ruble, which rises in the higher Andes north of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of Nuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat . 35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the See also:

• CAUTIN

Cautin, which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the principal confluent of the Imperial . The unsettled southern regions of Chiloe (mainland) and See also:

• MAGALLANES (Spanish form of Magellan)

Magallanes are traversed by a number of important rivers which have been only partially explored .

They have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of highest summits . The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras into an See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao . Its lowercourse is impeded in such a manner as to form three small lakes, called See also:

• SUPERIOR

Superior, Inferior and Taguatagua . A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso, has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles west of the 72nd meridian . The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the outflow of Lake Todos los See also:

• SANTOS

Santos through a short tortuous stream called the Petrohue . The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloe, and See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse a densely wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao . Continuing southward, the Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region . It drains a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio Fetaleuf u or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of the same name . It flows south-west through the Andes, and then north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado . The Argentine colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from See also:

• CHUBUT

Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat . 43° S . The Palena is another river of the same See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing into Chile .

It receives one large tributary from the south, the Rio See also:

• PICO

Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 44th parallel . The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena island from the mainland . The Aisen also has its source in Argentine territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about lat . 45° 20 S . The lower course of this river is essentially an inlet, and is navigable for a short distance . The next large river is the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific . Both of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line . The Las Heras discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 M. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Penas . Azopardo (or See also:

• MERINO

Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel . The course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet . Baker Inlet also receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin, whose far-reaching See also:

• FJORD, or FIORD

fjord-like arms extend from lat . 49° I0' to 48° 20' S.; its north-west See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm drains into the See also:

• TORO

Toro, or La Pascua, river .

Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through the Andes, and the See also:

• DIVIDE

divide between its southern extremity (See also:

• LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA

Laguna See also:

• TAR

Tar) and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into the Atlantic, is-so slight as to See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis that this was once a strait between the two oceans . After a short north-westerly course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet ir. lat . 48° 15' S., long . 73° 24' W . South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring away the drainage of their snow-capped, See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm-swept elevations . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland in a peculiarly shaped See also:

• BODY

body of water with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly to the Argentine frontier . It has the characteristics of a tidewater river and drains an extensive region . The sources of the Argentine river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same region, within Chilean territory . A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46° so' Si lat.) to Tierra del Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge See also:

• DIRECT

direct into these deeply cut estuaries . Some of the larger lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them . The formation of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere in the same latitudes . The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found chiefly in the southern half of the republic .

In the north the only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper Lakes. saline plateaus between the 23rd and 28th parallels . They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry part of the year . Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in some cases. have considerable commercial value . In central Chile above the io-Bio river the lakes are small and have no See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• INTEREST

interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule, in 36' 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37° 20' ,which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the same names . Below the Bio-Bio river there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley . They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes . With one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation . These lakes are Villarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue . The largest of the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m . Lake Todos los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level . The great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat . 46° 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cochrane (470 15' S.) and San Martin (49° S.), lie partly within Chilean territory .

In the extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat . 52° 30' S., and two large inland See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called See also:

• OTWAY, THOMAS (1652-1685)

Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which differ from each other in their See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological structure . Along the coast lies a See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous and See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date . The great See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only approximately, along the boundary between the two zones . Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone reaches to the shore . The See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses See also:

• STANDING

standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the sea . South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous See also:

• BAND

band along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile . Lithologically they are crystalline See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, together with granite, See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, See also:

• GABBRO

gabbro and other igneous rocks . They are known to be pre-See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is uncertain . They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits . In the north both the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a band of considerable width .

The Tertiary beds include both marine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene and See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata . The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions . The Mesozoic beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any complications such as overthrusting or overfolding . The Cretaceous beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are thrown into a number of folds which form the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis and the western flank . Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date . The Trias is known only at La Ternera near Copiapo, where See also:

• COAL

coal-seams with See also:

• RHAETIC (Fr. Rhetien or Rhcetien; Ger. Rhdt or Rhktisch; It. Retico)

Rhaetic See also:

• PLANTS

plants have been found; but the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the Mesozoic series, from the See also:

• LIAS

Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of more than See also:

• LOCAL

local importance . The deposits are marine, consisting mainly of See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone and See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry and porphyrite . These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea . They are not confined to any one See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasion-ally also amongst the Cretaceous strata . They form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal marine See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of the same age . The See also:

• FAUNA

fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region .

It lends no support to See also:

• NEUMAYR, MELCHIOR (1845-1890)

Neumayr's theory of See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic zones . A large part of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes . The rocks are liparites, dacites, See also:

• HORNBLENDE

hornblende and See also:

• PYROXENE

pyroxene andesites . The recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are See also:

• OLIVINE

olivine-bearing See also:

• HYPERSTHENE

hypersthene-See also:

• ANDESITE

andesite and See also:

• BASALT

basalt.' Climate.—The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical 1 See A . Pissis, " Sur la constitution geologique de la chaine See also:

• DES

des Andes entre le 160 et le 55e degre de latitude sud," See also:

• ANN

Ann. des mines, See also:

• SER

ser . 7, vol. iii . (Mom.), 1873, pp . 402-426, pls. ix., x.; R . A . See also:

• PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik)

Philippi, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die tertidren and quartdren Verstesnerungee Chiles (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous fossils), and Los Fosiles secondaries de Chile (Santiago, 1899) ; Karl Burckliardt, Profils geologiques transversaux de la Cordillere argentino-chilienne . Stratigraphie et tectonique," Anales See also:

• MUS

Mus.See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast . The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south .

In general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer . The cold See also:

• ANTARCTIC
• ANTARCTIC (Gr. &vri, opposite, and apKTos, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

antarctic, or See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus . The climate of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless See also:

• PAMPAS (Span. La Pampa, from a Quichua word signifying a level open space or terrace)

pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of rain . At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by the prevailing coast winds . With this exception these regions are the most arid on the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun during the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day and chilled at See also:

• NIGHT

night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a cold ocean current . Going south the temperature slowly falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season . At Copiapo, in 27° 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature is 6o° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in 29° 56' S., the temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 11 in . At Santiago, in 33° 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature is 54° and the annual rainfall 161 in., though the latter varies considerably . The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21 . At Talca, in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has increased to 19.7 in . The long dry season of this region makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37° . The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the See also:

• DEATH

death-See also:

• RATE

rate among the common See also:

• PEOPLE

people is abnormally high on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal habits and unsanitary surroundings .

In southern Chile the climate undergoes a See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change—the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall . The plains as well as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become torrents, and the See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the year . At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year . These meteorological conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of Chiloe, in 41° 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7° and the annual rainfall 134 in . The equable character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter temperatures, the mean for See also:

• JANUARY

January being 56.5° and the mean for See also:

• JULY

July 45'9° . The almost continual cloudiness is 'undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter temperatures . Frosts are infrequent, and snow does not lie long . The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the excessive humidity . The 600 m. of coast from the Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely approximating that of the latter . It is wet and stormy all the year through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia . The line of perpetual snow, which is 600o ft. above sea-level between lat . 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling during the summer .

At the extreme south, where Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan, a new climatic See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is encountered in the warm See also:

• EQUATORIAL

equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America, which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that of the western shore . The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate . This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53° to' S., where the mean annual temperature is 43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in . Other observations reduce this annual precipitation to Iess than 16 in . According to observations made by the See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903), at See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat . 55° 31' S., long . 68' 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 11 months was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain and snow) 53.1 in . The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the mean minimum 35'83° . The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of which 70 were with snow . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less interesting than those of Argentina and See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil, but contains many peculiar genera and See also:

• SPECIES

species . A See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of this flora necessitates La See also:

• PLATA, RIO DE LA, or RIVER PLATE

Plata, 1900, and " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura- and Kreide• formation der Cordillere," Palaeontographica, vol . 1 .

(1903-1904) pp . 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on South Ai,ierican geology by G . Steinmann and his collaborators in Neues Jahrb, fui See also:

• MIN

Min . Beil.-band viii. et seq . its division into at least three general zones—the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south . The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of the coast, between Tacna and Copiapo, but with a coarse scanty vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand . In the valleys of the Copiapo and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels below the sierras are completely barren . Continuing southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid conditions may be observed . The higher summits of the Cordilleras afford a larger and more continuous See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of water, and so dependent are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water supply that they See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an indication of what the coming season is to be . The arborescent growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be found the " algarrobo " (Prosopis siliquastrum) and " chaiiar " (Gourliea chilensis), but the only See also:

• SHRUB

shrub to be found on the coast is a species of Skytanthus . Near the sierras where irrigation is possible, See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-growing is so successful, especially the See also:

• GRAPE

grape and fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile . In regard to the indigenous flora of this region See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Ball1 says: "The species which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of plants which at some former period existed under very different conditions of See also:

• LIFE

life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (Cereus quisco) .

The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and See also:

• ALFALFA

alfalfa See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a thorny arborescent growth . The divides between the streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua . To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character between the northern and southern zones . It is much more than this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly its own . A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South See also:

• AMERICAN

American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile . This zone extends from about the 3oth to the 36th parallel, perhaps a little farther south to include some characteristic types . The evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south, and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a sub-tropical aspect . One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the peumo (Cryptocarya peumus), whose dense See also:

• EVERGREEN

evergreen foliage is everywhere conspicuous . The quillay (Quillaja saponaria) is another characteristic evergreen See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of this region, whose bark possesses saponaceous properties . In earlier times the coquito See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm (Jubaea spectabilis) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine See also:

• SAP

sap, from which a See also:

• TREACLE

treacle was made . One of the most striking forest trees is the pehuen or Chilean See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine (See also:

• ARAUCARIA

Araucaria imbricata), which often grows to a height of Too ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit . Three indigenous species of the See also:

• BEECH

beech—the roble (Fagus obliqua), coyhue (F .

Dombeyi), and rauli (F. procera)--are widely diffused and highly prized for their See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called roble (See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak) . Most of the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods used in construction and manufactures are found between the Bio-Bio river and the Taytao peninsula, among which are the alerce (Fitzroya patagonica), cipres or Chiloe See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress (Libocedrus tetragona), the Chilean cypress (L . Chilensis), lingue (Persea lingue), See also:

• LAUREL

laurel (Laurus aromatica), avellano (Guevina avellana), luma (Myrtus luma), espino (See also:

• ACACIA

Acacia cavenia) and many others . Several See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

exotic species have been introduced into this part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their native habitats . Among these are the oak, See also:

• ELM

elm, beech (F. sylvatica), See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut, See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow and See also:

• EUCALYPTUS

eucalyptus . Through the central zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes, but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are universal . In the variety, size and See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of their growth these forests remind one of the tropics . They are made up, in great part, of the evergreen beech (Fagus betuloides), the See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous antarctic beech (F. antarctica),2 and Winter's bark (Drimys Winteri), inter-mingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of shrubs and plants, among which are Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus rigida, Myrtus memmolaria, two or three species of Berberis, See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• CURRANT

currant (Ribes antarctica), a trailing See also:

• BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE

blackberry, tree ferns, See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed-like See also:

• GRASSES

grasses and innumerable parasites . On the eastern side of the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open, and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping forests extend from an altitude of -moo to 1500 ft. down to the level of the sea . A peculiar See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable product of this inclement region is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food among the Fuegians—probably the only instance where a fungus is the See also:

• BREAD

bread of a people . It is generally conceded that the See also:

• POTATO
• POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

potato originated in southern Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands and on the adjacent mainland . The See also:

• STRAWBERRY (Fragaria)

strawberry is also indigenous to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited Notes of a Naturalist in South America, p .

134 . 2 Also classified as Nothofagus (Mirb.) . with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of its best qualities . See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

Maize and quinoa (See also:

• CHENOPODIUM

Chenopodium quinoa) were known in Chile before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not certain that they are indigenous . Species .of the See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean and See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been cultivated by the natives . Among the many economic plants which have been introduced into Chile and have become important additions to her resources, the more prominent are See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp and alfalfa (Medicago sativa) , together with the staple European fruits, such as the See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach, nectarine, grape, fig, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive and orange . The date-palm has also been introduced into the southern provinces of the desert region . Among the marine productions on the southern coast, a species of See also:

• KELP (in M.E. culp or culpe, of unknown origin; the Fr. equivalent is varech)

kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent seas, and its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine animals . Captain FitzRoy found it growing from a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 270 ft., Fauna.—The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species and individuals . A great part of the northern deserts is as barren of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the south shelter surprisingly few species . There are no large mammals in all this extensive region except the See also:

• CETACEA
• CETACEA (from the Gr. ,Eros, a whale)

Cetacea and a species of the Phocidae of southern waters . Neither are there any dangerous species of See also:

• CARNIVORA

Carnivora, which are represented by the timid See also:

• PUMA

puma (Felis concolor), three species of wildcats, three of the See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, two of Conepatus, a See also:

• WEASEL (Putorius nivalis)

weasel, sea-See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter and six species of See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal .

The rodents are the most numerously represented See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, which includes the See also:

• COYPU

coypu or See also:

• NUTRIA

nutria (Myopotamus coypus), the See also:

• CHINCHILLA
• CHINCHILLA, LA PLATA
• CHINCHILLA, PERUVIAN

chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger), the tuco-tuco (Cknomys brasiliensis), a See also:

• RABBIT

rabbit, and 12 species of mice—in all some 12 genera and 25 species . The coypu, sometimes called the South American See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver, inhabits the river-See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, and is highly prized for its See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur . It is also found along the river-courses of Argentina . The ruminants are represented by a few species only—the See also:

• GUANACO

guanaco (Auchenia huanaco), See also:

• VICUNA

vicuna (A. vicugna) , huemul (Cervus chilensis), which appears on the Chilean See also:

• ESCUTCHEON (0. Fr. escucheon, escusson, modern dcusson, through a Late Lat. form from Lat. Scutum, shield)

escutcheon, and the pudu See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, a small and not very numerous species . There are two species of the See also:

• EDENTATA

Edentata, Dasypus and Pichiciego, the latter very rare, and one of the opossums . European animals, such as horses, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, sheep, See also:

• SWINE

swine and goats, have been introduced into the country and do well . Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree of success in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan . The avifauna, with the exception of waterfowl, is also limited to comparatively few species . Birds of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey are represented by the See also:

• CONDOR (Sarcorhamphus gryphus)

condor, See also:

• VULTURE

vulture, two species of the carrion-See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk (Polyborus), and See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl . The Chilean slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor, where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe losses at times from its attacks . The Insessores are represented by a number of species . Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where Darwin saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark .

Humming-birds have a similar range on this coast, one species (Mellisuga Kingii) being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del Fuego . A characteristic genus is that of Pteroptochus, of which there are three or four species each characterized by some conspicuous peculiarity . These are P. megapodius, called El Turco by the natives, which is noticeable for its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the P. albicollis, which inhabits barren hillsides and is called tapacollo from the manner of carrying its tail turned far forward over its back; the P. rubecula, of Chiloe, a small timid See also:

• DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from within," i.e. as opposed to " foreign ")

denizen of the gloomy forest, called the cheucau or chuca, whose two or three notes are believed by the superstitious natives to be auguries of impending success or disaster; and an allied species (Hylactes Tarnii, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King) called the guid-guid or See also:

• BARKING

barking See also:

• BIRD

bird, whose cry is a close See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of the yelp of a small See also:

• DOG

dog . The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several species of See also:

• PETREL

petrel, among which are the Procellaria gigantea, whose strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it quebranta huesos (breakbones), the Puffinus cinereus, which inhabits the inland channels in large flocks, and an allied species (Puffinuria Berardii) which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the See also:

• AUK

auk in some particulars of habit and appearance . There are numerous species in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans, cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, See also:

• CURLEW (Fr. Courlis or Corlieu)

curlew, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe, See also:

• PLOVER

plover and moorhens . Conspicuous among these are the great See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

swan (See also:

• CYGNUS (" The Swan ")

Cygnus anatoides), the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black-necked swan (Anser nigricollis), the antarctic See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose (Anas antarctica) and the " See also:

• RACE

race-See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse " or " steamer See also:

• DUCK

duck " (Micropterus brachypterus) . The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in species and highly.interesting in its varied forms and characteristics . The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives it a marine life of no special importance . In the shoal waters about Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly Gadus macrocephalus), differing in some particulars from the See also:

• NEWFOUNDLAND

Newfoundland See also:

• COD

cod, and a large See also:

• CRAYFISH (Fr. ecrevisse)

crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market . The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however, are rich in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the nomadic See also:

• INDIAN

Indian tribes of those regions . A large species of See also:

• BARNACLE

barnacle, Balanus psittacus, is found in great abundance from Concepcion to Puerto Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is called Pico, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of Valparaiso and Santiago . Oysters of excellent flavour are found in the sheltered waters of Chiloe .

The Cetacea, which frequent these southern waters, are represented by four species—two dolphins and the sperm and right See also:

• WHALE

whale—and the Phocidae by six species, one of which (Phoca lupina) differs but little from the common seal . Another species (Macrorhinus leoninus), popularly known as the sea-See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, is provided with short tusks and a short See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk and sometimes grows to a length of 20 ft . Still another species, the sea-See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion (Otaria jubata), furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable article of food, but like the Phoca lupina it is becoming scarce . Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven species—five saurians, four ophidians, one See also:

• FROG

frog and one See also:

• TOAD

toad—but a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the south may increase this See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list . There are no alligators in the streams, and the tropical north has very few lizards . There are no poisonous See also:

• SNAKES

snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians . The See also:

• INSECT

insect life of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by adverse climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the climate of Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable to terrestrial animal life, for which See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason comparatively few species are to be found . See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

Writing of a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey inland from Iquique, Charles Darwin says (See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Researches, &c., p . 444) : " Excepting the Vultur See also:

• AURA (from the Gr. for " breath " or " breeze ")

aura, . . . I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which was not large, the majority were of Alpine species . Moreover, he did not find a single species common to that island and See also:

• PATAGONIA

Patagonia .

These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity, abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier to See also:

• MIGRATION

migration from the countries of the eastern coast . The only venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider which frequents the wheat fields in See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest time . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The population of Chile is largely concentrated in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including Coquimbo and Concepcion, though the next six provinces to the south, of more recent general See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, have received some See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing . In the desert provinces the population is limited to the See also:

• MINING

mining communities, and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce . The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining population, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the adjoining province of Coquimbo . The more northern provinces, however, maintain their populations without the support of such small cultivated areas . In the southern territories unfavourable conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the population is restricted to a few small settlements and some nomadic tribes of See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians . Here, however, there are localities where settlements could be maintained by See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary means and 'the population could be greatly increased . Since the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold in the vicinity . The twelve provinces first mentioned, which include the celebrated " Vale of Chile," comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was concentrated within their borders . The four desert provinces north of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces and one territory south of Concepci6n had 20% . According to the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to which the census officials added so% to cover omissions .

This shows an increase slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885 . The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447 and 2,084,943, showing an actual decrease in population . During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country spending large sums annually to secure immigrants while at the same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . Writing in 1879, a correspondent of The Times 1 stated that this See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year . The condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss of 1 A . See also:

• GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895)

Gallenga, South America (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1880), p . 181 . population . In 1895, the foreigners included in the Chilean population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European, 29,687 American, and 1020 See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic, &c . According to See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality there were 8269 See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish, 7809 See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, 7587 See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian, 7049 See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, 6241 See also:

• BRITISH

British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian, 13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 Bolivian, 701 American (U.S.), 747 See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese . According to See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence, 1,471,792 were inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns . The See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since the 1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law are frequently eluded .

Notwithstanding the healthinelss of the climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities . In Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to 42 and 6o per See also:

• ROOD (O.E. rod, a stick, another form of " rod, O.E. rodd, possibly cognate with Lat. rudis, a staff)

rood, and See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant mortality is very high, being 73 % of the births in some of the provincial towns . This unfavourable See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of affairs is due to the poverty, See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance and insanitary habits of the lower classes . The See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government has made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships involved in establishing a See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home are great, and the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak . The Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded in See also:

• BUILDING

building up several important towns and a large number of prosperous agricultural communities . One German authority (See also:

• HUBER, FRANCOIS (1750-1831)
• HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879)
• HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764–1804)

Huber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these provinces at 5000 . The arrivals, however, have been on the whole discouragingly small, the total for the years 1901–1905 being only 14,000 . Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population, while the mestizos form fully 6o% . This estimate is unquestionably conservative, for there has been no large influx of European See also:

• BLOOD

blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times . The estimated' number of Indians living within the boundaries' of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably does not reach 5000 . The semi-See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• ARAUCANIANS (or AucA)

Araucanians, whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, See also:

• MALLECO

Malleco and Cautin, all that remains to them of the See also:

• ARAUCANIA

Araucania which they so bravely and successfully defended for more than three centuries . Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which is being steadily reduced by See also:

• DRUNKENNESS

drunkenness and epidemic diseases .

A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part live apart from See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . There are also some remnants of tribes in the province of Chiloe, which inhabit the island of that name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called See also:

• CHANGOS

Changos, on the desert coast, and traces of See also:

• CALCHAQUI

Calchaqui blood in the neighbouring Andean foothills . There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper or ruling class and the common people . The former includes the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those engaged in commercial and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial pursuits . These educated classes form only a small minority of the population . Many of them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness and hospitality . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the republic was secured to them by the constitution of 1833 . The common people were kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude . They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates on condition of performing a certain amount of See also:

• WORK

work for the landlord . Every See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

avenue toward the See also:

• BETTERMENT (i.e. " making better," as opposed to " worsement ")

betterment of their condition was practically closed . The condition of the itinerant labourers (peons) was still worse, the See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages paid them being hardly sufficient to keep them from See also:

• STARVATION

starvation . The Chilean peon, however, comes from a See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy stock, and has See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne all these hardships with a fortitude and See also:

• PATIENCE

patience which go far to counterbalance his faults .

Recent reforms in See also:

• EDUCATION

education, &c., together with the growth of manufacturing See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, are slowly leading to improvements in the material condition of the common people . The political organization of the country has not been favour-able to the development of See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic or scientific tastes, though Chile has produced political leaders, statesmen and polemical writers in abundance . See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical literature has been enriched by the See also:

• WORKS

works of Diego See also:

• BARROS, JOAO DE (1496-1570)

Barros Arana, See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, See also:

• MIGUEL, MARIA EVARIST (1802–1866)

Miguel Luis Amunategui, Carlos See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker Martinez, and others . One of the earliest native histories of Chile was that of See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe J . Ignacio See also:

• MOLINA, LUIS (1535-1600)

Molina, an English See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of which has long been a recognized authority; it is full of errors, however, and should be studied only in connexion with See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard works . Among these must be included See also:

• CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687)

Claude See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

Gay's monumental work, Historia General de Chile, and See also:

• SIR

Sir C . R . See also:

• MARKHAM, GERVASE (or JERVIS) (1568?-1637)
• MARKHAM, MRS
• MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT (183o- )
• MARKHAM, WILLIAM (1719-1807)

Markham's admirable studies on special parts of the subject . In See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, nearly all the important work has been done by foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin, Claude Gay, Eduard Poppig, See also:

• RUDOLPH
• RUDOLPH (d. 1o8o)
• RUDOLPH, or RAOUL

Rudolph A . Philippi and Hans Steffen, who deserves special mention for his excellent geographical work in the southern Andes . Divisions and Towns.-Chile contains 23 provinces and one territory, which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations and 3068 districts . The territory north of the Bio-Bio was origin-ally divided into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held Chiloe, Juan Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a military outpost .

During the years which have elapsed since the War of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence the territory south of the Bio-Bio has been effectively occupied and divided into six provinces, Chiloe and the neighbouring islands and mainland to the east became a province, and four provinces in the northern deserts were acquired from Bolivia and Peru . In addition to this, Chile claimed Patagonia and the adjacent islands, and has finally secured not only the forestedstrip of territory west of the Andes, but also a large piece of the Patagonian mainland, south of lat . 52° S., the larger part of Tierra del Fuego, and all the western islands . This extensive region, comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m., has been provisionally organized as the territory of Magallanes . For a list of provinces, their areas, reduced from See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official returns, their populations, and the names and populations of their capitals, see the bottom of this See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page . In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of importance . Among these may be mentioned:- The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well distributed through the cultivated parts of the country . The large number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or manufacturing centres, is a natural result . Many of the foregoing towns are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be measured in this way.' Arica is one of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest ports on the coast, and has long been a favoured port for Bolivian See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade because the passes through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult . Moreover, the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to its importance, though it may not greatly increase its population . Another See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of See also:

• CURICO

Curico, situated on a See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a large salt-making See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . Still another instance is that of See also:

• CASTRO, INEZ DE (d. 1355)
• CASTRO, JOAO DE (1500-1548)

Castro, the oldest settlement and former See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Chiloe, which after a century of decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop the industries of that island .

Communications.-Railway construction in Chile See also:

• DATES

dates from 1850, when work was begun on a short line between Copiapo and the port of Caldera, in the Atacama desert region . Since then lines have been built by private companies from the coast at several points to inland mining centres . One of these, See also:

• RUNNING

running from Antofagasta to the Caracoles district, was afterwards extended to See also:

• ORURO

Oruro, Bolivia, and has become a commercial route of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international importance, with a total length of 574 m., 224 of which are in Chile . It should be remembered that many of these railway enterprises of the desert region originated at a time when the territory belonged to Bolivia and Peru . The first railway to be constructed in central Chile was the government line from Valparaiso to Santiago, 115 m. in length, which was opened to See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in 1863 . About the same time the government began the construction of a longitudinal trunk line running southward from Santiago midway between the Andes and the Coast range, and connecting with all the provincial capitals and prominent ports . This is the only railway " system " it is possible for Chile to have . The See also:

• CIVIL

civil war of 1891 called attention to the need of a similar inland route through the northern provinces . A See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Valparaiso and Santiago line runs to Los Andes, and its See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension across the Andes connects with the Argentine lines from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and the Chilean frontier-all sections together forming a transcontinental route about 85o m. in length . The Transandine See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of this route crosses the Cordillera through the Population . Population . 1895 .

Est . 1902 . 1895 . Est . 1902 . Arica . . . 2,853 2824 Parral . . 8,586 10,219 Pisagua 3,635 4720 Constitucion 6,400 6,453 Taltal 5,834 6574 San Carlos . . 7,051 6,579 Tocopilla . 3,383 4752 Coronel . 4,575 5,959 Vallenar .

5,052 5199 Lota . . . . 9,797 Coquimbo . 7,322 8165 Talcahuano . 10,431 13,499 Ovalle 5,565 5772 El Tome . . 3,977 6,189 Los Andes (Santa 5,504 6854 Arauco . . . 3,008 3,334 See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa) . Quillota . . 9,621 9876 Cafete . . . 2,000 2,552 Vina del See also:

• MAR, EARLDOM OF
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 1ST OR 6TH EARL OF (d. 1572)
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR 7TH EARL
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6TH OR 11TH EARL OF (1675-1732)

Mar io,651 ..

Mulchen . . 4,268 4,332 Melipilla . . 4,286 5023 Traiguen 5,732 7,099 Rengo . . . 6,463 7232 See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria . . . 6,989 10,002 Vichuquen . . 826 3714 La See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union . . 2,830 3,908 Molina . . . 3,609 3222 Osorno . . 4,667 5,888 Castro (Chiloe) 1,035 2,166 Provinces .

Area . Population . Capitals . Population . Census 1895 . Census 1895 . Est . 1902 . Tacna 9,251 24,16o Tacna 9,418 11,504 Tarapaca . . 18,131 89,751 Iquique 33,031 42,788 Antofagasta . 46,611 44,085 Antofagasta . 13,530 16,084 Atacama .

. 30,729 59,713 Copiapo . 9,301 8,991 Coquimbo . . 13-461 160,898 La See also:

• SERENA, or LA SERENA

Serena 15,712 19,536 Aconcagua 5,487 113,165 San Felipe 11,313 11,66o Valparaiso 1,953 220,756 Valparaiso 122,447 142,282 Santiago . . 5,665 415,636 Santiago . 256,403 332,059 O'See also:

• HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES (1810-1868)

Higgins 2,342 85,277 Rancagua 6,665 7,133 See also:

• COLCHAGUA

Colchagua 3,856 157,566 San Fernando 7,447 8,164 Curico . . 2,978 103,242 Curic~ 12,669 14,340 Talca 3,840 128,961 Talca 33,232 42,766 See also:

• LINARES

Linares . . 3,942 101,858 Linares . 7,331 7,256 Yank 2,475 119,791 Cauquenes 8,574 9,895 Nuble 3,407 152935 Chillan 28,738 36,382 Concepcion . 3,252 188,190 Concepcion 39,837 49,351 Arauco . . 2,458 59,237 Lela* . 2,784 3,178 Bio-Bio . . 5,246 88,749 Los Angeles .

7,868 7,777 Malleco . . 2,973 98,032 Angol 7,056 7,638 Cautin 5,832 78,221 Temuco . 7,078 9,699 Valdivia . . 8,649 6o,687 Valdivia 8,060 9,704 Llanquihue 45,515 78,315 Puerto Montt 3,480 4,r4o Chiloe . 8,593 77,75o Ancud 3,182 3,787 Magallanes (Ter.) 71,127 5,170 Punta Arenas 3,227 8,327 Total, official 307,774 2,712,145 Total according to 293,062 2,983,359 Gotha computation With to% added for omissions . Official estimate for 1902 . . . . 3,173,783 IL Uspallata pass . A further Transandine See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme provides for a line through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30' to 390 S.), and the Argentine Great Southern See also:

• COMPANY

Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its See also:

• NEUQUEN

Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile . The railways of the republic had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 M. were owned by the state, and 1455 M. belonged to private companies . The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for the most part built and maintained for the transportation of mining products and supplies . In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 M. of public roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 M. of navigable river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast navigation .

Telegraphic communication between all the important towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned 9306 m. of line in a total of 11,o8o m . See also:

• CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take hold of)
• CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844– )

Cable communication with Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes, 32 m. in length . A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and North American states by way of See also:

• PANAMA

Panama . There were 15,853 M. of See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities having an admirable service . Modern postal facilities date from 1853 . The Chilean See also:

• POST

post-See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office is administered by a director-general at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, compared with those of other South American states . The postal rates are low, and See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers and other periodical publications circulate free, as a means of popular instruction . The postal revenues for 1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos and the expenditures to 2,407,753 pesos . Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of postal See also:

• MONEY

money values . The sea has been the only means of communication with distant parts of the country, and must continue to be the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief transportation route . There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast, of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade . Many of the so-called ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known harbours among the channels and islands of the south .

The prosperity of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade, and no elaborate system of See also:

• NATIONAL

national railway lines and domestic manufactures can ever change this relationship . These conditions should have See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a large See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant marine, but the Chileans are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense . In 1905 their ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which 54 were steamers of 42,873 tons See also:

• NET

net, and 94 were sailing vessels of 39,346 tons . Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Francisco, See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, and a large part of the others belongs to a Leta coal-mining and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper-smelting company which employs them in carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores for smelting . The navigable rivers and inland lakes employ a number of small steamers . The foreign See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce of the republic is carried chiefly by foreign vessels, and the coasting trade is also open to them . Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship service to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports . The See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping entries at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, both national and foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 tons, and the clearances 11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons . Very nearly one-half this See also:

• TONNAGE

tonnage was British, a little over 18 % German, and about 29 % Chilean . Commerce.—In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South American states only by Argentina, See also:

• URUGUAY (officially the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, and long locally called the Banda Oriental, meaning the land on the eastern side of the river Uruguay, from which the country takes its name)

Uruguay and the (Guianas . Unlike those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied occupations . The values of imports and exports (including bullicn, specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years 1901- Year .

Imports . pesos . 1901 . 139 300,766 1902 132,428,204 1903 149,081,524 1904 164,874,928 1905 188,596,418 The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee, See also:

• MATE (a corruption of make, from O. Eng. gemaca, a " comrade ")
• MATE, or PARAGUAY TEA

mate (flex paraguayensis), See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, hardware and machinery, railway and See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph supplies, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime and See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement, See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass and earthenware, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, woollen and See also:

• SILK

silk manufactures, coal,' See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum, paints, &c . Import duties are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25 %, and certain classes of merchandise are admitted free . The higher rates are designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors, cigars and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate . The 25 % rate covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260 items . The See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire, See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general . The See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff is nominally ad valorem, but as the rates are imposed on fixed official valuations it is essentially specific . The duties onimports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to 103,507,556 pesos . The principal exports are gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, copper (bars, See also:

• REGULUS, MARCUS ATILIUS

regulus and ores), See also:

• COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores, See also:

• VANADIUM

vanadium ores, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime, See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur, wheat and guano . Nitrate of soda forms from 70 to 75% of the exports, and the See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty received from it is the principal source of national See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue, yielding about £4,000,00o per annum .

In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of the exports, while agricultural and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral products did not quite reach one-eighth . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—According to the census returns about one-half the population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally in agricultural pursuits . What may be called central Chile is singularly well adapted to agriculture . The northern part of this region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long., dry summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products . Alfalfa, or See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

lucerne (Medicago saliva), is grown extensively for shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces . There were no less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua . Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these sub-tropical provinces, where the orange, See also:

• LEMON
• LEMON, MARK (1809-1870)

lemon, fig, See also:

• MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr. p XoaEawv, a kind of gourd; µijXov, apple, and a- brow, ripe)

melon, pineapple and See also:

• BANANA

banana are produced with much success . Some districts, especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence of their preserved fruits . The See also:

• VINE

vine is cultivated all the way from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced, south to Concepcion, where some of the best wines of Chile are manufactured . In 1904 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production in this region, the product for that year being 30,184,704 gallons of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and 212,366 gallons of See also:

• BRANDY

brandy . The universal beverage of the people—chicha—is made from Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn . Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is heavier and the average temperature is lower .

There were 1,044,025 acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced 17,910,614 bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 6o lb) to the See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre . In 1904 the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but in 1905 it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell off to 15,771,477 bushels . At one time Chile supplied Argentina and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but Argentina and California have become wheat producers and ex-porters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming markets . Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes a small quantity for milling mixtures . Chile has been badly handicapped by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing away and modern methods are taking their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . Formerly wheat was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the ripened See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed by horses driven about over the See also:

• STRAW

straw, but this antiquated See also:

• PROCESS

process was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more southern provinces, and the modern threshing-See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine has been introduced . Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption . Maize (Indian corn) is grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food . The See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green maize furnishes two popular national dishes, choclos and huntitas, which are eaten by both rich and poor . Potatoes also are widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly from Valdivia to Chiloe, produce the greatest quantity . The total annual production exceeds three million bushels . The See also:

• KIDNEY

kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is another staple product in every part of the country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food among all classes of Chileans .

Peas are largely cultivated south of the Maule . Walnuts have become another important product and are exported, the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50,000 bushels . The olive was introduced from See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain in colonial times and is widely distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic importance is not great . Of the European fruits introduced into the southern provinces, the apple has been the most successful . It grows with little care and yields even better than in its original home . The peach, See also:

• APRICOT (from the Lat. praecox, or praecoquus, ripened early, coquere, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly " apricock " and " abrecox," comes through the Fr. abricot, from the Span. albaricoque, which was an adaptation of the Arabic al-burquk, i

apricot, See also:

• PLUM

plum, See also:

• QUINCE (Lat. Cydonia or Colonea, Ital. Cotogna, Fr. coing, Mid. Eng. coin, quiet, whence a collective plural " quins," corrupted to singular " quince ")

quince and See also:

• CHERRY

cherry are also cultivated with success . Wild strawberries are found on both sides of the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, especially those of the province of Concepcion . The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for the home market . The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising, as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the whole year, but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to its profitable development . The government has been trying to promote cattle-breeding by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head) on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success . The importation, which formerly numbered about 14o,000per annum, still See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers not far from 100,000 head . There are some districts in central Chile where cattle-raising is the principal occupation, but the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result .

As in Argentina, See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef is generally dried in the sun to make charqui (ierked beef), in which form it is exported to the desert provinces . Horse and See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule breeding are carried on to a limited extent, and since the opening of the far South more attention has been given to sheep . Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large estates, but in Chiloe swine-raising is one of the chief occupations 1905 were as follows: Exports . pesos . 171,844,976 185,879,965 210,442,144 232,493,598 265,209,192 150 of the people . Some attention has been given to the production of See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter and See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance . A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, is that of See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate and the long season and abundance of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers . Manufactures.—The manufacturing interests of Chile have become influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country . They have been restricted principally to articles of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity—food preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing See also:

• APPAREL (from O. Fr. aparail, aparailler, mod. appareil, from Low Lat. adpariculare, to make fit. or equal)

apparel, See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather and leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c . In earlier days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat, See also:

• FLOUR

flour See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports . Concepcion, Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer provinces south of the Bio-Bio . There are over 500 large flour mills in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern See also:

• ROLLER

roller-process machinery .

The development of the coal deposits in the provinces of Concepcion and Arauco has made possible other industries besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago, Valparaiso, Copiapo and other places where no permanent water See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power exists . Tanning leather is an important industry, especially in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the algarrobilla (Balsamocarpon brevifolium) and lingue (Persea lingue), being rich in See also:

• TANNIN, or TANNIC ACID

tannin . To provide a market for the leather produced, factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, See also:

• HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of the Span. arnes, and Ger. Harnisch)

harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing well . See also:

• BREWING

Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic consumption of their products being very large . The breweries are generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south, though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso . Small quantities of their products are exported . See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

Furniture and See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are numerous and generally prosperous . There are likewise a large number of factories for See also:

• CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862)
• CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827)

canning and preserving fruits and vegetables . Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for the manufacture of railway material . The sugar See also:

• BEET

beet has been added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on a small See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of beet sugar . There is one large refinery at Vina del Mar, however, which imports raw See also:

• CANE

cane sugar from Peru for refining . The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tome, and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various descriptions .

The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries, soaps, candles, &c . Mining.—The most important of all the national industries, however, is that of mining . In 1903 there were 11,746 registered mines, on which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being valued at 178,768,170 pesos . These mines gave employment to 46,592 labourers, of whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate companies, 13,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal mines, and 2000 in other mines . Gold is found in nearly all the provinces from Antofagasta to Concepcion, and in Llanquihue, Chiloe and Magallanes territory, but the output is not large . There are a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive deposits near the Straits of Magellan . Silver is found principally on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the desert provinces of the north . The second most important mining industry in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago, O'Higgins, Colchagua, Curico and Talca, but the richest deposits are in the three desert provinces . Chile was once the largest producer of copper in the See also:

• WORLD

world, her production in 186o-1864 being rated at 6o to 67 % of the total . Low prices afterwards caused a large shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the principal producers . Iron mining has never been developed in Chile, although extensive deposits are said to exist . Manganese ores are See also:

• MINED

mined in Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large .

The other metals reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and vanadium, of which only small quantities are produced . Bolivian See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin is exported from Chilean ports . Among the non-metallic minerals are nitrate of soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine, sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid, &c . Guano is classed among the mineral products and still figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits were exhausted long before the war with Peru . Of non-metallic products nitrate of soda is by far the most important . Extensive deposits of the salt (called caliche in its crude, impure state) in the provinces of Tacna, Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their existence to the rainless character of the climate . Those of the first-named province have been discovered since the war between Chile and Peru, and have greatly extended the prospective life of the industry . The nitrate fields, which lie between 50 and too m. from the coast and at elevations exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have been officially estimated at 89,177 hectares (344. sq. m.) and to contain 2316 millions of metric quintals (254,760,000 short tons) . The first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons . The latter L [GOVERNMENT figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent over-production and a resulting decline in See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price . Nearly all the oficinas, or working plants, See also:

• ATE

ate owned and operated by British companies, and the railways of this desolate region are generally owned by the same companies and form a part of the working plant . Borate of lime also furnishes another important export, though a less valuable one than nitrate of soda .

Extensive deposits of See also:

• BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate)

borax and common salt have been found in the same region, which with several other products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably to its exports . The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the provinces of Concepcion and Arauco, the principal mines being on the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota . Coal is found also in Valdivia, on the island of'Chiloe, and in the vicinity of Punta Arenas on the Straits of Magellan . Sulphur is found in the volcanic regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces of Talca . The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903: Unit . Quantity . Value pesos (of 18d.) . Gold . grammes 1,424,625 1,745,115 Silver . . . . „ 39,012,382 1,284,308 Copper . kilogrs . 29,923,132 21,438,397 Lead It 70,984 9,097 Cobalt ore to 284,990 99,695 Lead and Vanadium ores „ 2,000 Manganese ore . . „ 17,110,000 682,400 Coal . tons 827,112 8,250,720 Nitrates .

. . . . metric quintals 14,449,200 140,102,012 Iodine kilogrs . 157,444 1,687,327 Borates . „ 16,878,913 2,363,048 Salt . . . . . metric quintals 162,635 324,270 Sulphur . . . .. kilogrs . 3,440,642 337,515 Sulphuric acid I,600,000 176,000 Guano . . . . me ric quintals 111,335 267,466 Various . . . kilogrs .

200 See also:

• BOA

Boa Government . Chile is a centralized republic, whose government is administered under the provisions of the constitution of 1833 and the amendments of the 9th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1888, the Ilth of August 1890, the loth of August 189o, the 22nd of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1891, and the 7th of July 1892 . According to this constitution the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty resides in the nation, but See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage is restricted to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read and write, and who are the owners of real See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate, or who have capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as investment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and a great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid, and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty in Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority . The dominant See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in this minority is the rich landholding interest, and the constitution and the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the first half-century were framed for the special protection of that interest . The supreme See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of government are vested in three distinct branches—legislative, executive and judicial . The legislative power is exercised by a national See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress, which consists of two See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers—a See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies of 94 members . The membership of the lower See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house is in the proportion of one See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber . The senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed every three years . The deputies are elected by departments and by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years . Both senators and deputies must have reached the age of See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-six, must have a specified income, and are required to serve without See also:

• SALARY

salary . A permanent See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of 14 members represents the two chambers during the congressional See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess and exercises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the ad-ministration of public affairs . Congress convenes each year on the 1st of See also:

• JUNE

June and sits until the 1st of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, but the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of so days, and with the consent of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of state may convene it in extraordinary session .

Congress has the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of giving or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government . The executive is a president who is elected fora See also:

• TERM

term of five years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term . He is chosen by See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors, who are elected by departments in the manner prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for each deputy . These elections are held on the 25th of June in the last year of a presidential term, the electors See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast their votes on the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint session of. the two chambers of congress on the 3oth of August, congress in joint session having the power to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election when no See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate has been duly chosen by the electors . The formal See also:

• INSTALLATION

installation of the president takes place on the 18th of September, the anniversary of the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of national independence . In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office, the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to exercise supervisory See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police powers, and to appoint the intendants of provinces and the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of departments, who in turn appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political divisions . The president, who is paid £2250 per annum, must be native-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible for election to the lower house . He is assisted and advised by a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior, foreign affairs, See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship and colonization, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and public instruction, war and marine, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, industry and public works . In See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a vacancy in the presidential office, the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of interior becomes the " See also:

• VICE

vice-president of the republic" and discharges the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally elected . A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required in many executive acts and appointments . The provinces are administered by intendentes, and the departments by gobernad ores, both appointees of the national executive . The sub-delegacies are governed by sub-delegados appointed by the governors, and the districts by ins pectores appointed by the sub-delegates .

Directly and indirectly, therefore, the administration of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president, who, in like manner, makes and controls the appointments of all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations of candidates from the courts and to submitting appointments to the approval of the council of state . This gives the national executive See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute control of all administrative matters in every part of the republic . The police force also is a national organization under the immediate control of the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor in every department is a representative of the national government . There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor any administrative official directly representing the people, with this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891, municipalities, or communes, are created and invested with certain specified powers of local government affecting local police services, sanitation, local improvements, See also:

• PRIMARY

primary instruction, industrial and business regulations, &c.; they are authorized to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education, &c., and to impose certain specified taxes for their support; these municipalities elect their own alcaldes, or mayors, and municipal See also:

• COUNCILS

councils, the latter having legislative powers within the limits of the law mentioned . Justice.—The judicial power consists of a Supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court of Justice of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the republic ; six See also:

• CON

con, is of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago, Talca and Concepcion; tribunals of first instance in the department capitals; and See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor courts, or justices of the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, in the sub-delegacies and districts . The See also:

• JURY

jury system does not exist in Chile, and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press has been abused . All trials, therefore, are heard by one or more See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher court . The government is represented in each department by a public prosecutor . The police officials, who are under the directcontrol of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial authority . This force is essentially military in its organization, and consisted in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and 5400 police soldiers . Small forces of local policemen are supported by various municipalities . The judges of the higher courts are appointed by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals by the federal official governing the political division in which they are located .

See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

Army.—For military purposes the republic is divided into five districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the central provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth . Large sums of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and fortifications . The army is organized on the German See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model and has been trained by European officers who have been employed both for the school and See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment . Though the president and minister of war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is concentrated in a. general See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff comprising six service departments, at the head of which is a chief of staff . After the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized under the direction of See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel Emil Korner, an accomplished German officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff . In 1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry, 6 regiments of See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery, i regiment of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers—aggregating 915 officers and 4759 men . To this See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus were added 616o recruits, the contingent for that year of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours . Under the law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory for all citizens between eighteen and See also:

• FORTY

forty-five years, all young men of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the regular force . After this period they are transferred to the 1st reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve . The military See also:

• RIFLE

rifle adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895 model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with See also:

• KRUPP, ALFRED (1812—1887)

Krupp guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre . Military instruction is given in a well-organized military school at Santiago, a war See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy and a school of military See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering . See also:

• NAVY

Navy.—The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization and methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British yards .

In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of i See also:

• BATTLE

battle ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo gunboats, 6 destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats . In addition to these there are several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the total up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries . The administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the " Direccion jeneral de la See also:

• ARMADA, THE

Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. lts duties also include the military protection of the ports, the hydrographic survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service . The personnel comprises about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty officers and men . There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Concepcion Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal and repair shops, a large dry See also:

• DOCK

dock and a patent slip . The naval school, which occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction . Education.—Under the old conservative regime very little was done for the public school outside the larger towns . As a large See also:

• PRO

pro-portion of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural communities, they received comparatively little attention . The increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the situation with reference to popular education, and the government now makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within the reach of all . The constitution provides that free instruction must be provided for the people . School attendance is not compulsory, however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75 %) appears to be very slow . The government also gives primary instruction to recruits when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employment of the people in the towns, See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps to stimulate a See also:

• DESIRE

desire for education among the lower classes .

Education in Chile is very largely under the control of the national government, the minister of justice and public instruction being charged with the direction of all public See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools from the university down to the smallest and most remote primary school . The system includes the University of Chile and National See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in all the provincial capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central points for the training of public school teachers, professional and industrial schools, military schools and primary schools . Instruction in all these is free, and under certain conditions See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books are supplied . In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to enter the public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition free, but also books, See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, lodging and everything needed in their school work . The national university at Santiago comprises faculties of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, law and political science, See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine and See also:

• PHARMACY

pharmacy, natural sciences and See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, and See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . The range of studies is wide, and the attendance large . The National Institute at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in Chile . There were 30 of these high schools for See also:

• MALES

males and 12 for See also:

• FEMALES

females in 1903, with an aggregate of 11,504 matriculated students . The normal schools for males are located at Santiago, Chillan and 152 Valdivia; and for females at La Serena, Santiago and Concepcion . The mining schools at Copiapo, La Serena and Santiago had an aggregate attendance of 18o students in 1903, and .the commercial schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance of 214 . The more important agricultural schools are located at Santiago, Chilean, Concepcion and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de Agricultura in the national capital having a large attendance . The School of Mechanic Arts and Trades (Escuela de See also:

• ARIES (" The Ram ")

Aries y Oficios) of Santiago has a high reputation for the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical character of its instruction, in which it is admirably seconded bya normal handicraft school (Sloyd system) and a night school of industrial See also:

• DRAWING

drawing in the same city, and professional schools for girls in Santiago and Valparaiso, where the pupils are taught millinery, See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress-making, See also:

• KNITTING (from O.E. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. Knutten; the root is seen in " knot ")

knitting, See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery and See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy See also:

• NEEDLEWORK

needlework .

The government also maintains schools for the See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind and for the See also:

• DEAF

deaf and dumb . The public primary schools numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 pupils enrolled, and an average attendance of 108,582 . The cost of maintaining these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of £2 : 17 :3 per See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil in attendance . In addition to the public schools there are a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law and civil engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous private schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of 11.184 students of both sexes in 1903 ; and 506 private primary schools, with an attendance of 29,684 . The private schools usually conform to the official requirements in regard to studies and See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations, which facilitates subsequent See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to the university and the obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern provinces . A Consejo de Instruction P6blica (council of public Instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the higher and secondary schools . There are schools of See also:

• MUSIC

music and See also:

• FINE

fine arts in Santiago . The national library at Santiago, with 116,300 volumes in 1906, and the national See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory, are both efficiently administered . At the beginning cf the loth century there were 41 public See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries in the republic, including public school collections, with an aggregate of 240,000 volumes . Charities.—According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the year, and had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536 patients received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with 5570 See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children: and there were 3092 persons in the various hospicios or asylums, and 1478 in the See also:

• IMBECILE (through the French from Lat. imbecillus or imbecillis, weak, feeble; of unknown origin)

imbecile asylums . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—The Roman Catholic religion is declared ny the constitution to he the religion of the state, and the inaugural See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath of the president pledges him to protect it . A considerable part of its income is derived from a See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

subsidy included in the annual See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget, which 'makes it a See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge upon the national See also:

• TREASURY

treasury like any other public service .

The See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular supervision of this service is entrusted to a member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of worship and colonization . The executive and legislative powers intervene in the appointments to the higher offices. of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . The greater part of the population remains loyal to the established faith . The law of 1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to" other faiths, and the laws of 1883 made civil See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage and the civil registry of births, deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized the cemeteries . Under the reform of 1865 full religious fre_dom is practically accorded, and it is provided that the services of religious organizations other than the Roman Catholic may be held in private residences or in edifices owned by private individuals or corporations . Of the 72,812 foreigners residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were described as Protestants . Notwithstanaing the opposition of some political elements to the Church, the Chileans themselves may all be classed as Roman Catholics . The ecclesiastical organization includes one See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop, who resides at Santiago, three bishops residing at La Serena, Concepcion and Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta and Tarapaca . These benefices are filled by appointments from lists of three prepared by the council of state and sent to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome by the president, and in the case of an archbishop or See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment must also receive the approval of the Senate . The Chilean clergyare See also:

• DRAWN

drawn verylargelyfrom the higher classes, and their social standing is much better than in many South American states . The Church also possesses much See also:

• PROPERTY

property of its own, and is therefore able to maintain itself on a comparatively small subsidy from. the public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos (73,943) in 1902 . The Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral towns, and these also receive a subsidy from the government .

Finance.—For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich mineral-producing provinces of the north, together with the development of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, largely increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other important resources . During the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade 1831–184o the annual revenues averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade 1861–1870 had increased to an average of only 8.200,000 pesos—and this during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account of wheat exports to California and See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia . After 187o the revenues increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and in 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos . The revenues from the captured[FINANCE Peruvian nitrate fields then became an important part of the national income, which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of 138,507,178 pesos (of 18d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold . In 1906 the receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000 pesos, of which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on nitrate, 39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos currency to railway receipts . During these years of fiscal prosperity the country suffered much from See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial crises caused by industrial stagnation, an excessive and depreciated See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper currency and political disorder . To ensure an income that would meet its foreign engagements, the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes and import duties in gold . As a considerable part of the expenditures were in gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency accounts separate . In 1895 a See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion law was passed in which the See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the outstanding paper should be redeemed . A conversion fund was also created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two more large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of import duties in paper . The national revenue is derived chiefly from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol tax, and from railway, postal and telegraph receipts . There is no land tax, and See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence or business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes .

The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and See also:

• AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, and mortem, to death)

amortization charges on the public See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, official salaries, military expenses in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including railway construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office, church subsidies, public instruction and foreign See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation . The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the five years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows : Receipts, pesos . Expenditures, pesos . Gold . Paper . Gold . Paper . 1899 83,051,604 45,239,970 31,732,797 76,749,793 1900 89,869,178 46,515,102 30,564,821 82,143,742 1901 74,665,061 35,394,434 39,808,517 91,087,171 1902 105,072,832 33,434,346 45,093,2781 89,170,0871 1903 108,503,565 32,490,145 12,508,075 84,721,437 For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at . 149,000,000 pesos, and the revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included 62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos gold and 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos paper from the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal and telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans . How the revenues are expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in which the total ;expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos paper and 58,796,78o pesos gold, the principal appropriations being 16,192,780 pesos paper and 99,733 gold for the war department, 10,460,781 paper and 6,315,731 gold for the marine department, 40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold for railways, and 6,324,817 paper for public works . In addition to these the budget of 1906 provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La Paz railway . The See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of dividing receipts and expenditures into ordinary and extra-ordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as revenue, of adding six months to the fiscal year for closing up accounts, and of dividing receipts and expenditures into separate gold and currency accounts, leads to much confusion and complication in the returns, and is the cause of unavoidable discrepancies and contradictions .

In May 1906 the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external debt of the republic aggregated £21,700,000, including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to £5,700.000, for sanitary works and railway construction . At the sarne time the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000), which increases the funded indebtedness to £29,725,000 . Like Brazil, Chile has been careful to preserve her foreign See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit, and though an average indebtedness of about £10 per capita may seem large for a nation with so much absolute poverty among its people, the government is finding no difficulty in negotiating new loans, the mineral resources of the country and the conservative instincts of the people being considered satisfactory guarantees . According to official returns, the real-estate valuations in 1903–1904 aggregated 1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 pesos were in See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property . Of the total returned, 1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626.576 pesos as non-taxable . The large and steadily increasing receipts from import duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 pesos in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity in the country, although an average of 341 pesos a year (nearly £2 : 12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures, seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a people . Currency.-The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost wholly of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of 1 The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold, and 108,844,693 pesos currency . 18d. per peso . The conversion law of 1895 made the currency convertible at this rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d. previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the See also:

• SUS

sus-See also:

• PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, to pay)

pension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper led to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal of specie from circulation . The paper circulation consists of national and See also:

• BANK

bank issues . The former owes its existence very largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial troubles of 1898 . On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,990 pesos, making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation .

This total was largely increased by President See also:

• BALMACEDA, JOSE MANUEL (1838—1891)

Balmaceda in 1891 . On the 31st of July 1898 the conversion of paper notes, under the law of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued 27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan at 2 %, and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos, and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and assumed responsibility for 1,193;641 pesos which had been illegally put into circulation before 1896 . This gave an aggregate registered circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898 . In 1904 another issue of 30,oco,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act provided that the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000,000 pesos of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues should be made only through the issue department and against deposits of gold, which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation of the currency issued . The redemption of this issue was guaranteed by a conversion fund of See also:

• IOO

Ioo,000,000 pesos, and by an authorization to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance, if necessary . The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at 77,282,257 pesos (5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907 . There are 23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital of 40,689,6655 pesos (3,051,724) . Their circulating notes are secured by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and other approved securities . There is 'no state bank, though the Bank of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of 20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution . Besides these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and their agencies, and three See also:

• MORTGAGE

mortgage banks, with agencies at the important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to See also:

• BEARER

bearer . There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits on the 31st of December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos . The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual coinage .

The gold coins authorized by this law are the condor of 20 pesos, the medio condor, or doblon, of ro pesos, and the escudo of 5 pesos . The silver coins are the peso of too centavos and its fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos . The See also:

• BRONZE

bronze coins are of 2i, 2, I, and . centavos . The metric system of weights and See also:

• MEASURES

measures is the legal standard in Chile, but the old Spanish See also:

• STANDARDS

standards are still widely used, especially in handling mining and See also:

• FARM

farm produce . Nitrate of soda is estimated in Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, and metric quintals (220.46 lb) at the port of shipment . In silver and copper mining the mart (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the ores . Farm produce is generally sold by the arroba or fanega; the care is used in lineal measurement, and the cuadra is used by country people in land measurement . (A . J .